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Chapter 12 Thinking about Parenthood Fertility in the United States Pronatalism pronatalism a cultural value that encourages childbearing pronatalism is found virtually everywhere about 40 of adults thought that it is better to have a child than to remain without 2007 41 of adults believe that having children is key to a successful marriage 2010 pronatalism is supported by social institutions and policies here and around the world Historical Fluctuation general fertility rate live births per 1 000 women ages 15 44 the 1920s was a period of higher birth rates due to limited birth control and relative affluence GFR 118 the sharp decline 15 years later suggests that fertility rates are influenced by not just personal choices but macro level conditions and social trends during the 30s the US fell into deep economic depression which caused fewer people to marry GFR 77 after the Great Depression birth rates increased again known as the baby boom GFR 118 caused by macro level influences such as couples marrying younger the decrease in the number of women working outside the home and the fact that women were encouraged to be mothers in media in the 1960s the GFR declined baby bust again as more women began to break previously set social constructions Hispanics have the highest fertility rate GFR 74 and American Indian Alaskan Natives have the lowest 47 this can be attributed to cultural differences Hispanics are more likely to be Roman Catholic where it is frowned upon to use birth control Delayed Parenthood o women and men are delaying the age at which they have their first child o o in 1970 21 years old today 25 4 years old the average varies among racial and ethnic groups Asian 29 years old Native American 22 years old Netherlands Japan and Switzerland over 29 years old The Costs and Rewards of Raising Children Economic and Opportunity Costs The Rewards of Parenting direct financial costs out of pocket expenses for things such as food clothing housing and education opportunity costs lost opportunities for income by working only part time or not at all because of children U S Department of Agriculture estimates it will cost middle income families 301 970 for food clothing shelter and other goods and services for a child born in 2012 until their 19th birthday the emotional feelings of love and devotion are harder to quantify and more subjective children can bring tremendous joy and purpose to the lives of their parents many parents get satisfaction from watching their children s accomplishments 85 of parents said the relationship with their minor children was most fulfilling 2001 children also provide parental links to social institutions such as churches or schools which provide more opportunities for parents to create relationships Remaining Childfree 16 of women between the ages of 40 44 do not have children 2010 and 2012 it is possible that some may have children at this age but most won t this is due to micro and macro influences remember the baby bust o o Infertility infertility the inability to get pregnant after 1 year of trying affects about 12 of adults of childbearing age in the U S occurs within all income and racial and ethnic categories 30 of infertility can be attributed to a woman 30 to the man and the rest from both partners or indeterminate causes assisted reproductive technology ART all fertility treatments in which either egg or sperm or both are handled IVF The most common ART in which a woman uses ovulation stimulating drugs to produce an excess number of eggs The eggs are surgically removed and fertilized in a dish with sperm If the eggs are fertilized successfully the embryo s are implanted into the woman s uterus Sometimes eggs from a donor are used instead of those from the woman herself o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Controversial issues surrounding ART how many eggs can or should be implanted at one time What happens to the unused embryos o surrogacy the act of giving birth to a child for another person or a couple who then adopts or takes legal custody of the child One woman acts as a surrogate or replacement mother for another woman sometimes called the intended mother who either cannot produce fertile eggs or cannot carry on a full term pregnancy Traditional surrogacy a type of surrogacy where the man s sperm is implanted through artificial insemination In this case the surrogate mother is both the genetic and birth mother of the child Gestational surrogacy a type of surrogacy where the intended mother s egg is combined with the man s sperm and implanted in the surrogate through in vitro fertilization This is common for those who can produce fertile eggs but cannot carry a child to term commercial surrogacy the surrogate is paid a fee plus any expenses incurred in her pregnancy altruistic surrogacy the surrogate is paid only for expenses incurred or isn t paid at all controversial issues surrounding surrogacy renting our bodies challenges most basic ideas of motherhood potential for exploiting low income women rumors about the wealthy who hire surrogates simple to avoid stretch marks or the hassle of pregnancy in some countries surrogacy has been nicknamed reproductive tourism poor women renting their wombs o The Hidden Emotions of Infertility loss of the pregnancy and birth experience loss of a genetic legacy and loss for future contributing citizens of the next generation loss of the parenting experience loss of a grandparent relationship loss of feelings of self worth o Macro level Factors That Influence Fertility pronatalist cultural views dominant religion cultural considerations o Micro level Factors That Influence Fertility loss of stability in family and personal relationships loss of work productivity loss of a sense of spirituality or sense of hope for future education and employment opportunities for women level of technology to combat infertility biological considerations perceived psychological benefits and costs associated with children pressure from family or friends personal desire for children economic situation willingness to adopt Other Paths to Parenthood Adoption adoption a mechanism by which adults legalize their parental relationship to non biological children provides parents to infants who are relinquished at birth and parents for older children who have died or had their rights revoked about 135 000 children are adopted every year 2011 Closed and Open Adoptions Closed adoption an adoption where identifying information


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FSU FAD 2230 - Chapter 12 – Thinking about Parenthood

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