Myers EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY 7th Ed Chapter 9 Thinking Language and Intelligence James A McCubbin PhD Aneeq Ahmad Ph D Clemson University as modified by Ray Hawkins Ph D Worth Publishers Thinking Language Intelligence Thinking Concepts Solving Problems Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Thinking Language Intelligence Language Language Development Thinking and Language Animal Thinking and Language Thinking Language Intelligence Intelligence What Is Intelligence Theories of Intelligence Assessing Intelligence Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores Thinking Thinking or cognition refers to a process that involves knowing understanding remembering and communicating Cognitive Psychologists Thinking involves a number of mental activities which are listed below Cognitive psychologists study these in great detail 1 2 3 4 Concepts Problem solving Decision making Judgment formation Concepts The mental grouping of similar objects events ideas or people There are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of a chair Category Hierarchies We organize concepts into category hierarchies Courtesy of Christine Brune Development of Concepts We form some concepts with definitions For example a triangle has three sides Mostly we form concepts with mental images or typical examples prototypes For example a robin is a prototype of a bird but a penguin is not Film Bird mental image J Messerschmidt The Picture Cube Daniel J Cox Getty Images Triangle definition Problem Solving Problem solving strategies include 1 2 3 4 Trial and Error Algorithms Heuristics Insight Algorithms Film Algorithms which are very time consuming exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution Computers use algorithms SPLOYOCHYG If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach we would face 907 200 possibilities Heuristics B2M Productions Digital Version Getty Images Heuristics are simple thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently Heuristics are less time consuming but more error prone than algorithms Heuristics Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems SPLOYOCHYG S PP SL YO CH YO OC LH OGY Put a Y at the end and see if the word begins to make sense Insight Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem Humans and animals have insight Grande using boxes to obtain food Insight From Mark Jung Beekman Northwestern University and John Kounios Drexel University Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes the Aha experience it activates the right temporal cortex JungBeeman others 2004 The time between not knowing the solution and realizing it is about 0 3 seconds Obstacles in Solving Problems Confirmation Bias A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias 2 4 6 Rule Any ascending series of numbers 1 2 3 would comply Wason s students had difficulty figuring out the rule due to a confirmation bias Wason 1960 Fixation Fixation An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective This impedes problem solving An example of fixation is functional fixedness From Problem Solving by M Scheerer Copyright 1963 by Scientific American Inc All Rights Reserved The Matchstick Problem How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles Candle Mounting Problem Using these materials how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board From Problem Solving by M Scheerer Copyright 1963 by Scientific American Inc All Rights Reserved The Matchstick Problem Solution From Problem Solving by M Scheerer Copyright 1963 by Scientific American Inc All Rights Reserved Candle Mounting Problem Solution Making Decision Forming Judgments Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition seldom using systematic reasoning Using and Misusing Heuristics Two kinds of heuristics representative heuristics and availability heuristics have been identified by cognitive psychologists Daniel Kahneman Courtesy of Greymeyer Award University of Louisville and Daniel Kahneman Courtesy of Greymeyer Award University of Louisville and the Tversky family Amos Tversky Representativeness Heuristic Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent or match a particular prototype If you meet a slim short man who wears glasses and Probability that do thatyou person a truck driver is far likes poetry what thinkishis profession would greater than an ivy league professor just because be there are more truck drivers than such professors An Ivy league professor or a truck driver Availability Heuristic Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability How is retrieval facilitated 1 How recently we have heard about the event 2 How distinct it is 3 How correct it is Overconfidence Intuitive heuristics confirmation of beliefs and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments In the stock market both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock Exaggerated Fear The opposite of having overconfidence is having an exaggerated fear about what may happen Such fears may be unfounded AP Wide World Photos The 9 11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear The Effects of Framing Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed Example What is the best way to market ground beef as 25 fat or 75 lean The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence If you see that a country is hostile you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility Jervis 1985 Perils Powers of Intuition Intuition may be perilous if unchecked but may also be extremely efficient and adaptive Language Language our spoken written or gestured work is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others M E Bernheim Woodfin Camp Associates Language transmits culture Language We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the world s languages Percentage able 100 90 to discriminate Hindi t s 80 70 60 Film 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hindispeaking adults 6 8 months 8 10 months 10 12 months Infants from English speaking homes
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