What is scientific inquiry?Scientific questions can be answered objectivelyEmpirical questionsQuestions that can be answered by observing and measuring the world around us.Replication“studies that are properly designed and conducted can be repeated … and produce the same findings.”The Empirical ProcessTheory: generates hypothesesHypothesis: predicts specific pattern of dataData Collection: evaluates hypothesis, leads to modification/elaboration of theoryResearch basicsVariablesThings that vary and can be measuredOperational DefinitionsConcrete definition of a variable, based on a specific measurement procedureOften substitutes latent variables with directly observable indicatorsScale or system for assigning valuesGoal of any study is to find patterns in, or relations among, variablesWhat are the types of studies in psychological research?Experiments:Manipulation of conditionsPurposeHypothesis testingEstablishing causalityIndependent VariableThe variable that is manipulatedDependent VariableThe variable that is measuredInfluenced by the independent variableImportance of controlConfoundsRandom assignmentCorrelational Designs:How Variables are RelatedBasic characteristicsNo manipulation of variablesExamine relationships between variablesCorrelation does not imply causationInterpretation of CorrelationThird Variable ProblemDirectionality ProblemDescriptive Studies:Observation and Classification of BehaviorPurpose: Observe & classify behaviorTwo types of descriptive studiesNaturalistic Observation: Observer separate from situationParticipant Observation: Researcher involved in situationWhat are the data collection methods of psychological science?Observational TechniquesCharacteristicsUnobtrusive researcherSystematic assessment and coding of overt behaviorsDecisionsLaboratory or natural environment?How to record the data?Should the observer be visible?Problems for observational techniquesReactivity: Knowledge we are being observed alters behavior being observedObserver bias: Systematic errors in observation due to observer’s expectationsExperimenter expectancy effects: When observer bias leads to changes in the behavior of those being observedSurvey and interview techniquesAsking methodsInterviewsSelf-Reports – Surveys & QuestionnairesTypes of questionsOpen-Ended QuestionsClosed-Ended QuestionsIssues in self-report methodsEasy to administer and low in costProblem of “response set”reverse codingSampling: Selecting the people to be tested (the sample) from the populationSelf-Report BiasReluctance to supply personal informationSocially-desirable respondingCase StudiesCharacteristicsIntensive examination of one personSubject is typically unusualProblemsDifficulty isolating the real causesResearcher lacks control over person’s life and eventsResponse PerformanceUsed for studying perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific set of stimuliBasic ways to quantify response performanceReaction timeResponse accuracyStimulus judgmentsPsychophysiological AssessmentHow changes in bodily function are associated with behavior or mental stateElectrophysiologyEEG: electrodes on scalpSingle Cell RecordingBrain ImagingPositron Emission Tomography (PET)Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)Ethical IssuesInstitutional Review Boards (IRBs)Informed ConsentRelative Risks of ParticipationResearch with AnimalsPsych 301, 9/3/3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY What is scientific inquiry? Scientific questions can be answered objectively Empirical questions Questions that can be answered by observing and measuring the world around us. Replication “studies that are properly designed and conducted can be repeated … and produce the same findings.” The Empirical Process Theory: generates hypotheses Hypothesis: predicts specific pattern of data Data Collection: evaluates hypothesis, leads to modification/elaboration of theory Research basics Variables Things that vary and can be measured Operational Definitions Concrete definition of a variable, based on a specific measurement procedure Often substitutes latent variables with directly observable indicators Scale or system for assigning values Goal of any study is to find patterns in, or relations among, variables What are the types of studies in psychological research? Experiments: Manipulation of conditions Purpose Hypothesis testing Establishing causality Independent Variable The variable that is manipulated Dependent Variable The variable that is measured Influenced by the independent variable Importance of control Confounds Random assignment Correlational Designs: How Variables are Related Basic characteristics No manipulation of variables Examine relationships between variables Correlation does not imply causation Interpretation of Correlation Third Variable Problem Directionality Problem Descriptive Studies: Observation and Classification of Behavior Purpose: Observe & classify behavior Two types of descriptive studies Naturalistic Observation: Observer separate from situation Participant Observation: Researcher involved in situationWhat are the data collection methods of psychological science? Observational Techniques Characteristics Unobtrusive researcher Systematic assessment and coding of overt behaviors Decisions Laboratory or natural environment? How to record the data? Should the observer be visible? Problems for observational techniques Reactivity: Knowledge we are being observed alters behavior being observed Observer bias: Systematic errors in observation due to observer’s expectations Experimenter expectancy effects: When observer bias leads to changes in the behavior of those being observed Survey and interview techniques Asking methods Interviews Self-Reports – Surveys & Questionnaires Types of questions Open-Ended Questions Closed-Ended Questions Issues in self-report methods Easy to administer and low in cost Problem of “response set” reverse coding Sampling: Selecting the people to be tested (the sample) from the population Self-Report Bias Reluctance to supply personal information Socially-desirable responding Case Studies Characteristics Intensive examination of one person Subject is typically unusual Problems Difficulty isolating the real causes Researcher lacks control over person’s life and events Response Performance Used for studying perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific set of stimuli Basic ways to quantify response
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