Name and differentiate between the two main subcategories of the vertebrate nervous system Central nervous system the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body Identify and describe the subdivisions of the PNS What NTs do they use Somatic controls voluntary muscles and conveys sensory information to the central nervous system Autonomic controls involuntary muscles ex heart intestines and other organs Sympathetic expends energy fight or flight signals norepinephrine Parasympathetic conserves energy rest and digest signals acetycholine Gangliar are the neurotransmitters How does the spinal cord receive and send information to and from the PNS Sensory information comes in from the PNS via the nerves that enter the dorsal side and motor information leaves to the PNS via the nerves on the ventral side Differentiate between ganglion and nucleus nerve and tract and the basic directional terms Ganglion a cluster of neuron cell bodies usually outside the CNS as in the sympathetic system Nucleus a cluster of neuron cell bodies inside the CNS Nerve a set of axons in the PNS either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ to the CNS Tract a set of axons withthin the CNS also knowns as a projection Dorsal to the back Ventral to the stomach Medial to the center Lateral away from the center Anterior to the top front end Posterior to the bottom rear end Contralateral on the opposite side Ipsilateral on the same side Grey matter area consisting mainly of cell bodies White matter area consisting mainly of axons Name the structures and systems found in the hindbrain midbrain and forebrain and describe their basic functions HINDBRAIN medulla regulates vital reflexes like breathing heart rate salivation pons deals with swallong bladder control taste posture first place where information becomes contralateral cerebellum important for movement balance and coordination attention and timing reticular formation attention arousal sleep raphne system involved in attention vigilance and mood MIDBRAIN Tectum Superior colliculus vision Inferior colliculus hearing Tegmentum eye movement FOREBRAIN cortex outer layer of cerebrum higher order processing thalamus relays info to and from cortex limbic system reward motivation emotion hypothalamus motivation hormone regulation amygdala involved in attention aggression and mood hippocampus learning and memory basal ganglia movement attention planning Describe the structure and functions of the ventricular system Consists of spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid CSF produced by choroid plexus serves to cushion the brain and hold nutrients in reserve lateral ventricles third ventricle fourth ventricle central canal meninges membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord What is the cortex composed of e g grey vs white matter How is surface area increased Grey matter cell bodies surface area is increased by folding sulcus fold or groove and gyrus bump delineated by sulci What tracts allow communication between the hemispheres Does information travel ipsilaterally or contralaterally Go through white matter tracts Corpus collosum anterier commissure Name the four brain lobes and describe their primary functions Occipital vision back of head Parietal receives sensations from tough receptors muscle stretch receptors and joint receptors Temporal by temples hearing memory emotion Frontal forehead movement high order cognition planning working memory Name and give examples of the four primary methods used to discern the relationship between brain structure and function Effects of brain damage Transcranial magnetic stimulation humans difficult to assess because damage is not typically localized animals ablating removing and lesioning damaging provides information regarding the necessity of the are or gene in the behavior but not the sufficiency study strokes Correlation of anatomy with behavior Human studies imaging techniques that allow visualization of the extent of damage CAT MRI animals euthanize animal remove tissue stain for viewing under microscope Effects of brain stimulation Humans only done if in brain surgery animal use implanted microelectrodes or optogenetics in which electric current or light used to stimulate specific areas difficult to interpret Brain activity during behavior EEG MEG measure electrical or magnetic activity across the scalp PET measures speed of breakdown of radioactivity material injected into a person s blood fMRI measures blood flow across brain areas while a person completes a task animals electrophysiology record activity from brain areas nerves in anesthetized animal surgically implanted microelectrode recorders electrical activity microdialysis what s happening chemically in the brain while awake and behaving What procedures might you use to decrease or increase activity in certain brain areas in humans or animals What control groups are necessary for lesion studies Sham operations for lesion studies performs all procedures except for passing the electrical current Why is fMRI considered to be the gold standard for assessing brain activity in humans compared to the other methods fMRI is based on hemoglobin instead of water MRI measure changes over about 1 second identifies location within 1 2 mm no use of radiation Describe the phases in which connections between neurons are made in a developing embryo production of new cells Proliferation Migration Differentiation Myelination Synaptogenesis chemical and glia guided movement of neurons growth of specialized structures e g dendrites axon glial cells coat axons in myelin synapses form and are pruned throughout life What guides these connections chemicals What chemical must be received in order for a newly formed synapse to remain nerve growth factor What happens to neurons if they don t receive this chemical technical term They die apoptosis Describe a syndrome that occurs when things go wrong with this process Fetal alcohol syndrome Smaller brain fewer synapses Describe the types of and potential treatments for stroke Hemorrhagic bleeding ruptured blood vessels fatal ischemic blocked blood clots clogging vessels tissue plasminogen activatior tPA breaks up clots cannabinoids decrease excitotoxicity due to glutamate and reduce inflammation cooling brain reduces swelling slows down activity If treatment isn t provided in time what other ways can a person regain function The brain compensates Where and in
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