INTRO TO BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR (OPTIONAL) FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDESection 9GENETICS CHAPTER 1.2Sex linked genes: genes located on the sex chromosomesSex limited genes: present in both sexes but effects mostly one sex (ex. Facial hair in men, breast size in women)Heritability: variation in a characteristic due to differences in genetics or environment (ex. Eye color, social attitudes)Multiplier effect: genes increase tendency and magnify from environment (ex. Tall girl plays basketball because she is tall)Evolution: change over generations in frequencies of genes in a populationNatural selection: “survival of the fittest”, strongest genes for survival of a species remains prevalent, weaker genes become extinctEpigenetics: changes in phenotypes (appearance) or gene expression caused by environment (ex. Stress makes somebody fat)CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM CHAPTER 2.1Two types of cells in the body: Neurons and GliaCell MembranePhospholipid bilayer: 2 layers around cell, semipermeable (Water and oxygen can pass through)Ion Channels: protein channels, receptorsNeuronsMotor neuron: out to spinal cordINTRO TO BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR (OPTIONAL) FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDESection 9Sensory Neuron: out to Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Myelin sheath: covers and protects the axonDendrites: receive impulses from the axon of another cellSynapse: where two cells meet (over the synaptic gap), located on dendritic spinesGlia: located around neurons, DO NOT transfer info over long distances, DO exchange chemicals and nutrients with neurons5 Types of Glia: -Astrocytes: remove waste-Oligodendrocytes: myelin in CNS-Schwann Cells: myelin in PNS-Microglia: repair-Radial Glia: guides migration of neuronsBlood Brain Barrier (BBB)Keeps out: viruses and bacteria, chemicals, nutrientsKeeps in: small uncharged molecules, fat soluble molecules, glucoseAfferent v. EfferentAfferent: brings info into a structureEfferent: carries info away from a structureINTRO TO BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR (OPTIONAL) FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDESection 9GROSS ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN CHAPTER 4.1, 4.2Gray matter: cellsWhite matter: myelinated axonsHomunculus: representation of bodies on cortex, much sensation in hands and mouth CortexCorpus callosum: 2 hemispheres communicate via this1. Frontal Lobe – THINKINGPre-frontal Cortex: executive functions (“Association cortex”) – planning, foresight, working memoryLobotomy: surgical procedure that cuts the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex, used for mental illnesses (schizophrenia, depression)2. Parietal Lobe – BODY SENSATIONSTouch cortex: sensationContralateral neglect: damage to right parietal, won’t feel touch on left side of body3. Temporal Lobe – HEARINGAuditory cortex: hearing, language comprehensionWernicke’s Aphasia: damage to area, words don’t make senseINTRO TO BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR (OPTIONAL) FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDESection 94. Occipital Lobe – SIGHTPrimary and secondary visual cortex: visual processingDamage to this area cortical blindnessDivisions of the Brain1. ForebrainThalamus: relay stationHypothalamus: hunger, thirst, arousal, body temperature, sex drivePituitary gland: makes and releases hormonesBasal Ganglia: motor controlLimbic System: emotion (amygdala) and memory (hippocampus)2. MidbrainSuperior colliculus: visual processingInferior colliculus: auditory processingSubstantia Nigra: important in reward, addiction, and movement (“Mickey Mouse”)3. HindbrainPons: crossing axonsMedulla: breathing, heart rate, calmingCerebellum: balance, coordinationCranial Nerves (12 pairs): sensory and motor control for head and face (ex. Salivating, pupils)Cerebral Ventricles: reservoir for hormones, nutrientsCerebrospinal fluid (CSF): protective-buoyant fluid (keeps brain from hitting skull)INTRO TO BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR (OPTIONAL) FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDESection 9PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM & SPINAL CORD CHAPTER 4Somatic Nervous System: nerves that convey info from sense organs to CNS, and from CNS to musclesAutomatic Nervous System: controls heart, intestines-sympathetic NS: fight or flight-Parasympathetic NS: calming, vegetative nonemergency functions-Enteric NS: controls gastrointestinal systemDermatomes: segments of skin, muscle, or bone associated with spinal nervesThe Spinal CordMeningeal covering (like brain)Looks different at different levelsRESTING POTENTIAL AND ACTION POTENTIAL CHAPTER 2.2Resting PotentialIons are unequally distributed across membrane of a cellMembrane is polarized, has a resting potential of -70 mVAction PotentialSignal that conveys information over distances in nervous systemINTRO TO BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR (OPTIONAL) FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDESection 9“All or none” responseRefractory period: period after nerve fires while it loads up to fire second stimulusThreshold: critical level of depolarization that is needed to trigger an action potentialSYNAPTIC POTENTIALS, NEUROTRANSMITTERS, HORMONES CHAPTER 3.1, 3.2Voltage Gated Channel: action potentials, on the axon, open when cell reaches certain threshold voltage, allows ions in or outLigand Gated Channel: synaptic potential, at synapses, open when a ligand binds, allows ions throughExcitatory synapses: less negativeInhibitory synapses: more negativeSpatial Summation: combine excitatory impulsesTemporal Summation: combine over timeSynaptic potential: at synapse, is gradedAction potential: down an axon, all or noneINTRO TO BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR (OPTIONAL) FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDESection 9NeurotransmittersDopamine: excitatory, controls arousal levelsSerotonin: excitatory, mood, sleep, pain, appetiteNoradrenaline: excitatory, arousal, heighten moodAcetylcholine: excitatory or inhibitory, memoryGABA: inhibitory, control anxiety levelEnkephalin: inhibitory, reduces stress, painkillerAgonist: increases effects of NTAntagonist: blocks effects of NTIonotropic: fast, short lastingMetabotropic: slower, long lastingHormonesSteroid hormones: derived from cholesterol, testes, ovaries, adrenal glandsProtein and peptide hormones: amino acid chains, brain, pituitary, organs/glandsNegative feedback loop: checks and balancesSYNAPSES, DRUGS, AND ADDICTION CHAPTER 3.3NAc and Dopamine (DA): pleasurable experiences increase DA releaseCocaine: blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrineRitalin: blocks DA reuptake, gradual effect, similar to AdderallEcstasy (MDMA): stimulates serotonin release, decrease in depression and anxiety, increase in oxytocin (social attachment), increase in vasoccin (need to drink water)Nicotine:
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