S tudy Questions: Introduction:1) Understand the 4 different ways to look at behaviors in biologicalpsychology.a. Physiological explanation:i. Relates a behavior to the brain (and other organ) activityii. Why did she run from the tiger? Her sympathetic nervous system was activated, inducing the release of certain neurotransmitters and hormones allowing her to run quickly…b. Ontogenetic explanation:i. From “to be” and “origin”ii. Describes the development of a structure or behavior(genes, nutrition, experience)iii. Impulse control- my husband has better impulse control than my 6 year old, who has better impulse control than my 3 year old. Why? Impulse control develops gradually from infancy into young adulthood, reflecting gradual maturation of the prefrontal cortex. c. Evolutionary explanation:i. Examines structure or behavior in terms of evolutionary historyii. Examples: similar birdsongs, goosebumps. iii. Explanation for why some species’ songs closely resemble those of other species: perhaps that the 2 species evolved form a single ancestor; also goosebumps make hair stand on end so creature looks bigger than it really is. d. Functional explanation:i. Describes why a behavior evolved as it didii. Identifies an advantage (male birds sing to mate; camouflage)iii. Usually only the male sings, and he only sings duringthe reproductive seasons and in his own territory; function of bird song is to attract females and warn away other males; another example: an animals behavior and appearance could camouflage it or make it look like something else for escaping predators or tricking prey. Zone-tailed hawk looks and flies like a vulture s prey ignore it. 2) Why can we use animal research to understand human processes?a. The underlying mechanisms of behavior are similar across species and sometimes easier to study in nonhuman species.b. Non-human vertebrates have similar anatomy, chemistry, and physiology as humans.c. Even invertebrate nerves follow same basic principles as our own. Ex: squid giant axon. d. What we learn about animals sheds light on human evolution. Certain experiments cannot use humans because of legal or ethical restrictions. i. Electrophysiologyii. Developmental biology (ocular dominance columns, sensitive periods for development, etc)iii. Repair after brain damage….. etc….e. Animal research has done more good then harm, therefore we continue to do it. 3) Understand the points in Animal Research: Fact vs. Fiction.a. T or F: computer models and cell cultures can replace animal testing. i. F: even the most sophisticated technology models cannot mimic the complex cellular interactions that occur in a living system.b. T or F: Dogs, cats and monkeys are used more than any other animal in medical research.i. F: mice and rates, bred for research; BTW, dogs essential for research in cardiovascular disease. c. T or F: Lost/stolen pets are sold to laboratoriesi. F: most bred for research, a few come from “death row” or pounds, fewer still purchased from USDA-licensed dealers.d. T or F: there are no laws or government regulations to protect research or animals.i. F: Institutional ACUC is required by law.e. T or F: there is no need to test consumer products on animals- some companies don’t. i. F: obligated to for public safety, many products/ingredients were previously tested on animals. Chapter 1- Genetics:1) What is heritability, how do we study it (what are twin and adoption studies… what do their results tell us?), and what are the problems with studying it?a. Heritability is the estimate of how much of the variance in a characteristic (within a population) is due to differences in heredity (genes).b. Twin Studies: Monozygotic (MZ) vs. Dizygotic (DZ) Twins.i. Resemblance: MZ (identical) > DZ (fraternal) High Heritabilityii. Resemblance: MZ (identical) = DZ (fraternal) low heritabilityc. Adoption Studies: if adopted kids resemble biological parents more than adoptive parents, we assume high heritability.d. Problems with estimating heritability:i. Twin studies: MZ twins share chorion and blood supply (ie., more similar prenatal environment compared to DZ twins)…so could be genetics or could be prenatal environment.ii. Adoption Studies: biological children of low IQ or mentally ill parents tend to have similar problems even if raised by “great” adoptive parents…. Could be genetics.. BUT could be reflection of poor prenatalenvironment. iii. Another problem with estimating heritability:1. Genes predispose you to behaviors and to different treatment by others. 2. Multiplier effect: genes or prenatal influences increase tendency environment facilitates it. a. Ex: temper tantrums, attractiveness, athletics.b. What started out as potentially small effect of genes ends up having a huge behavioral result… leading to an overestimation of heritability. iv. Environmental influences CAN affect a trait with high heritability. 2) What are examples of environmental influences on traits with otherwise high heritability?a. Ex: Mice in elevated plus maze. i. Some genetic strains tend to stay in walled arms; others venture out onto open arms. BUT sometimes astrain that is unadventurous in one lab is more adventurous in another. Depends on exactly how the researchers handle the mice, maybe odors in the room…b. Ex: Phenylketonuria (PKU): mental retardation due to genetic inability to metabolize phenylalanine (an amino acid).i. Genetic inability to metabolize phenylalanine. If untreated, PKU accumulates to toxic levels impairsbrain development, children are mentally retarded, restless, irritable; this is caused by recessive gene (1% of Europeans carry it). In babies with high levels of phenylalanine in blood or urine, diets low in phenylalanine can minimize brain damage. Have to stay on diet for life, and PKU moms have to be very careful in pregnancy. Difficult diet (avid eggs, meat, dairy, grains, aspartame, which is 50% phenylalanine!)ii. Moral of story: inherited or genetic does not necessarily equal unmodifiable (although sometimes it does).3) What is a sex-linked gene? Understand the heritability of sex-linked genes. What is a sex-limited gene? What are examples of each (sex-linked and sex-limited)?a. The genes on the sex chromosome (X and Y). usually on the X, because it has lots more genes on it than the Y.b. Consider a gene on the X chromosome..i. If a male gets this gene, he will display the trait.ii. A female must get it on
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