Name and differentiate between the two main subcategories of the vertebrate nervous system.Central nervous system- the brain and spinal cordPeripheral nervous system-connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body Identify and describe the subdivisions of the PNS. What NTs do they use?Somatic- controls voluntary muscles and conveys sensory information to the central nervous systemAutonomic- controls involuntary muscles, ex: heart, intestines, and other organsSympathetic: expends energy, “fight or flight”, signals norepinephrineParasympathetic: conserves energy, “rest and digest”, signals acetycholineGangliar are the neurotransmittersHow does the spinal cord receive and send information to and from the PNS?Sensory information comes in from the PNS via the nerves that enter the dorsal side and motor information leaves to the PNS via the nerves on the ventral sideDifferentiate between ganglion and nucleus, nerve and tract, and the basic directional terms.Ganglion- a cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS (as in the sympathetic system)Nucleus- a cluster of neuron cell bodies inside the CNSNerve- a set of axons in the PNS, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ to the CNSTract- a set of axons withthin the CNS, also knowns as a projectionDorsal- to the backVentral- to the stomachMedial- to the centerLateral- away from the centerAnterior- to the top/front endPosterior- to the bottom/rear endContralateral- on the opposite sideIpsilateral- on the same sideGrey matter- area consisting mainly of cell bodiesWhite matter- area consisting mainly of axonsName the structures and systems found in the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain and describe their basic functions.HINDBRAIN-medulla- regulates vital reflexes like breathing, heart rate, salivation-pons- deals with swallong, bladder control, taste, posture, first place where information becomes contralateral-cerebellum- important for movement, balance, and coordination, attention and timingreticular formation: attention, arousal, sleepraphne system: involved in attention, vigilance, and mood MIDBRAINTectumSuperior colliculus: visionInferior colliculus: hearingTegmentum: eye movementFOREBRAIN-cortex- outer layer of cerebrum, higher order processing-thalamus- relays info to and from cortex-limbic system- reward, motivation, emotionhypothalamus- motivation, hormone regulationamygdala- involved in attention, aggression, and moodhippocampus- learning and memory-basal ganglia- movement, attention, planningDescribe the structure and functions of the ventricular system. -Consists of spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) produced by choroid plexus-serves to cushion the brain and hold nutrients in reserve-lateral ventricles-third ventricle-fourth ventricle-central canal-meninges- membranes that surround the brain and spinal cordWhat is the cortex composed of (e.g., grey vs. white matter)? How is surface area increased?Grey matter- cell bodies, surface area is increased by folding: sulcus (fold or groove) and gyrus (bump delineated by sulci)What tracts allow communication between the hemispheres? Does information travel ipsilaterally or contralaterally?Go through white matter tracts: Corpus collosumà anterier commissureName the four brain lobes and describe their primary functionsOccipital: vision, back of headParietal: receives sensations from tough receptors, muscle-stretch receptors, and joint receptorsTemporal: by temples, hearing, memory, emotionFrontal: forehead, movement, high-order cognition, planning, working memoryName and give examples of the four primary methods used to discern the relationship between brain structure and function. – Effects of brain damageTranscranial magnetic stimulation; humans- difficult to assess because damage is not typically localized; animals- ablating (removing) and lesioning (damaging); provides information regarding the necessity of the are or gene in the behavior, but not the sufficiency; study strokes– Correlation of anatomy with behaviorHuman studies- imaging techniques that allow visualization of the extent of damage (CAT, MRI); animals- euthanize animal, remove tissue, stain for viewing under microscope– Effects of brain stimulationHumans- only done if in brain surgery; animal- use implanted microelectrodes or optogenetics in which electric current or light used to stimulate specific areas; difficult to interpret- Brain activity during behavior-EEG/MEG- measure electrical or magnetic activity across the scalp, PET- measures speed of breakdown of radioactivity material injected into a person’s blood, fMRI- measures blood flow across brain areas while a person completes a task-animals- electrophysiology- record activity from brain areas/nerves in anesthetized animal; surgically-implanted microelectrode recorders- electrical activity, microdialysis- what’s happening chemically in the brain while awake and behavingWhat procedures might you use to decrease or increase activity in certain brain areas in humans or animals? What control groups are necessary for lesion studies?Sham operations for lesion studies- performs all procedures except for passing the electrical currentWhy is fMRI considered to be the “gold standard” for assessing brain activity in humans compared to the other methods?fMRI is based on hemoglobin instead of water (MRI), measure changes over about 1 second, identifies location within 1-2 mm, no use of radiationDescribe the phases in which connections between neurons are made in a developing embryo. – Proliferation : production of new cells– Migration : chemical- and glia-guided movement of neurons– Differentiation : growth of specialized structures (e.g., dendrites, axon)– Myelination : glial cells coat axons in myelin– Synaptogenesis : synapses form and are pruned throughout lifeWhat guides these connections? chemicals What chemical must be received in order for a newly formed synapse to remain?- nerve growth factor What happens to neurons if they don’t receive this chemical (technicalterm)? They die (apoptosis) Describe a syndrome that occurs when things go wrong with this process. Fetal alcohol syndrome: Smaller brain, fewer synapsesDescribe the types of and potential treatments for stroke. Hemorrhagic (bleeding, rupturedblood vessels- fatal) & ischemic (blocked/ blood clots clogging vessels), tissue plasminogenactivatior (tPA)- breaks up clots, cannabinoids: decrease excitotoxicity
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