1CHAPTER 2 SUMMARYSocial research examines human behavior. The process requires curiosity and imagination, but also knowing the rules and procedures that guide research in describing and explaining why people behave as they do.Sociological research is important to our daily lives, because it creates knowledge that helps us understand our daily lives, exposes myths, affects social policies, and sharpens thinking skills. It also helps us make informed decisions about our everyday lives. The scientific method is characterized by steps in the research process that include careful data collection, exact measurement, accurate recording and analysis of the findings, thoughtful interpretation of results, and, when appropriate, a generalization of the findings to a larger group.A variable is a characteristic that can change in value or magnitude under different conditions. Variables can be attitudes, behavior, or traits such as ethnicity, gender, and social class.A statement of a relationship between two or more variables is a hypothesis. In testing a hypothesis, sociologists predict a relationship between an independent variable, a characteristic that determines or has an effect on the dependent variable, the outcome. Using the previous example, “unemployment” is the independent variable and “divorce” is the dependent variable.Reliability is the consistency with which the same measure produces similar results time after time. Validity is the degree to which a measure is accurate and really measures what it claims to measure. Consider student course evaluations.Deductive reasoning begins with a theory, prediction, or general principle that is then tested through datacollection. Inductive reasoning begins with a specific observation, followed by data collection and the development of some general conclusions or theories.A population is any well-defined group of people (or things) about whom researchers want to know something. A sample is a group of people (or things) that are representative of the population researcherswish to study. In drawing a sample, researchers must decide whether to use probability or nonprobability sampling. A probability sample is one in which each person (or thing, such as an e-mail address) has an equal chance of being selected because the selection is random. The most desirable feature of a probability sample is that the results can be generalized to the larger population. A nonprobability sample is any sample in which little or no attempt is made to get a representative cross section of the population.The steps of the research process include: choosing a topic, conducting a literature review, formulating a hypothesis, choosing a research design, collecting the data, presenting the findings, analyzing the results, and stating the conclusion. Qualitative research involves examining and interpreting non-numerical material. In quantitative research, sociologists focus on a numerical analysis of people’s responses or specific characteristics.2Sociologists talk about correlations, or the relationship between variables, rather than causation. They rarely use the term “cause” to describe their results because they cannot prove cause and effect. Instead, sociologists can only suggest, or at most indicate, a relationship between variables.Researchers use surveys to systematically collect data from respondents using questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, or a combination of these techniques. Questionnaires can be mailed, used during an interview, or self-administered (such as student course evaluations).Secondary analysis examines data collected by someone else. The data may be historical materials, (suchas court proceedings), personal documents, (such as letters and diaries), public records ,(such as state archives on births, marriages, and deaths), and official statistics, (such as health information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).Field research is when a social scientist systematically observes people in their natural surroundings. In participant observation, researchers interact with the people they are studying but do not reveal their identities as researchers. If you recorded interaction patterns between students and professors during your classes, you would be engaging in participant observation. In nonparticipant observation, researchers study phenomena without being part of the situation.An experiment is a carefully controlled, artificial situation that allows researchers to manipulate variables and measure their effect. In the classic experimental design, there are two groups that are very similar in size and on characteristics such as sex, age, ethnicity or race, and education. In the experimental group, the subjects are exposed to the independent variable. In the control group, they are not. Before the experiment, the researcher measures the dependent variable in both groups using a pretest. After the experimental group is exposed to the independent variable, the researcher measures both groups again using a posttest. If the researcher finds a difference in the dependent variable, she or he assumes that the independent variable is having a “causal” effect on the dependent variable.Evaluation research relies on all of the standard methodological techniques to assess the effectiveness ofsocial programs in both the public and private sectors. Many government and nonprofit agencies provide services that affect families and other groups, both directly and
View Full Document
Unlocking...