CHAPTER 9 SUMMARYSex refers to the biological characteristics with which we are born—chromosomes, anatomy, hormones, and other physical and physiological attributes. Gender refers to learned attitudes and behaviors that characterize people of one sex or the other. Gender is based on social and cultural expectations rather thanon physical traits. The perception of oneself as either masculine or feminine is a gender identity. The characteristics, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that society expects of females and males are known as gender roles. Sociologists often describe our roles as gendered, the process of treating and evaluating males and females differently because of their sex. Gender stereotypes are expectations about how people will look, act, think, and feel because of their sex.Sexism is an attitude or behavior that discriminates against one sex, usually women, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex. Sexism is mostly subtle, but some is blatant, or visible, intentional, and easily documented. According to social theorists, cyber-sexism (including stalking, death threats, and hate speech) are prevalent, and when online user names appear to be female, women are 25 times more likely than men to experience harassment. Sexism is widespread due to gender stratification—people’s unequal access to wealth, power, status, prestige, and other valued resources on the basis of their sex. Gender-segregated work and wage gaps are still prevalent in most occupations. Women’s jobs require feminine skills while the occupations that men dominate tend to be masculine. Women-dominated occupations tend to be registered nurses, child care workers, secretaries, and preschool and kindergarten teachers. There is also continued sex segregation within occupations. Women make 77 cents for every dollar a man makes. This income difference is the gender pay gap (also called the wage gap). Much of the wage gap can be attributed to hitting a glass ceiling, an invisible barrier that keeps women from being more successful. Women face sexual discrimination and pregnancy discrimination with 220,000 complaints filed with the EEOC between 1992 and 2007. Sexual harassment is unwanted sexual advance, request for favors, or other conduct of a sexual nature that makes a person uncomfortable and interferes with her or his work.Sexual orientation is one’s preference for sexual partners of the same sex, of the opposite sex, or of both sexes. Homosexuals are sexually attracted to people of the same sex. Heterosexuals are called “straight” and are attracted to partners of the opposite sex. Bisexuals, sometimes called bis, are attracted to members of both sexes. Asexuals lack any interest in or desire for sex. Transgendered include transsexuals, intersexuals, and transvestites. Transgendered people can include all of the above. Researchers measure the extent of homosexuality by simply asking people whether they identify themselves as either heterosexual or as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered (the acronym is GLBT).Theories of why we are of a sexual preference include biological (strong genetic basis for preference) andsocial constructionist theories (sexual behavior is the result of social pressure and culture). Overall, many Americans accept that gay men and lesbians should have equal rights in the workplace. 1Heterosexism is a belief that heterosexuality is superior to and more “natural” than homosexuality or bisexuality. Homophobia, the fear and hatred of homosexuality, is less overt today than in the past, but is still widespread. Homophobia often manifests itself in gay bashing—threats, assaults, or acts of violence directed at homosexuals. Abortion is the expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus. It can occur naturally—as in spontaneous abortion (miscarriage)—or it can be induced medically. One half of all pregnancies are unintended and one half of those are aborted. Anti-abortion groups maintain the practice kills an embryo with the right to live; pro-abortion groups claim the organism lacks a brain and that women have a right to decide what will happen to their body. Same-sex marriage is legal in five countries. In the U.S., several states have passed legislation allowing gay couples the same rights of married couples. Other states have amended their constitutions to explicitly prohibit gay marriage. In 2008, California’s Supreme Court ruled (4 to 3), that same-sex marriage is legal because “an individual’s capacity to establish a loving and long-term committed relationship with another person and responsibly to care for and raise children does not depend upon the individual’s sexual orientation.” Pornography is the graphic depiction of images that causes sexual arousal. The images include photographs, movies, magazines, videos (including those on the Internet), and similar materials. In the United States, pornography is a $15 billion industry. According to some estimates, 25 percent of Americans look at Internet pornography every day with over 90 percent of the viewers being men.Pornography is controversial. Proponents argue it is an outlet for mainly men. Others maintain that pornography should be banned because it devalues and exploits women, increases violence against girls and women, and makes people more accepting of rape. There are several sociological explanations of gender inequality, and the first discussed is the functionalistexplanation. Functionalists focus on the gender division of labor and the role played by men and women in society. The male role is an instrumental role of procreator, protector, and provider while the female play an expressive role by providing the emotional support and nurturance that sustain the family unit and support the father/husband.For functionalists, the instrumental and expressive roles are complementary. They also see sexuality as critical for reproduction. The focus of the perspective is on intact traditional marriages. Critics argue the perspective discourages gender equality and the importance of sexual relationships outside of marriage.Conflict theory focuses on gender inequality as built into social structure. Gender inequality under capitalism profits companies and men. Women’s unpaid work helps reproduce the system. Conflict theorists see a link between gendered violence, prostitution, and gender inequality. Critics see the perspective as overemphasizing gender conflict
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