CHAPTER 6 SUMMARYA social group consists of two or more people who interact with one another and who share a common identity, a sense of belonging or “we-ness.” Friends, families, work groups, religious congregations, clubs, athletic teams, and organizations are all examples of social groups. Each of us is a member of manygroups simultaneously.A primary group is a relatively small group of people who engage in intimate face-to-face interaction over an extended period of time. A secondary group is usually a large, formal, impersonal, and temporary collection of people that pursues a specific goal or activity. Unlike primary groups, secondary groups are usually highly structured with rules and regulations. Primary groups meet our expressive (emotional) needs while secondary groups focus on instrumental (task-oriented) needs.Ideal types are general elements that describe a social phenomenon rather than every case. Ideal types arecomposite pictures of how social phenomena differ rather than specific descriptions of reality. Primary and secondary groups are ideal types.Members of an in-group share a sense of identity and “we-ness” that typically excludes and devalues outsiders. Out-groups are people who are viewed and treated negatively because they are seen as having values, beliefs, and other characteristics different from one’s own. A reference group is a group of peoplethat shape our behavior, values, and attitudes. Reference groups influence who we are, what we do, and who we’d like to be in the future. Unlike primary groups, however, reference groups rarely provide personal support or face-to-face interaction over time.Group conformity is an important part of social life. A number of studies show, however, that most people are profoundly influenced by group pressure. Solomon Asch’s research on conformity revealed that when a group of subjects were confronted with an experiment measuring lines on a card, that an individual would often change his or her answer to a wrong answer if the group agreed to a wrong answer. Another researcher, Stanley Milgram, proved that individuals would shock subjects in an experiment if told to by the teacher, even when the subjects faked shrieks. Another researcher Philip Zimbardo faked arrests at a mock prison where 24 college students became guards and prisoners. These normal young men quickly assumed the roles of obedient and docile prisoners or autocratic and controlling guards. The guards became increasingly more cruel and demanding. The prisoners complied with dehumanizing demands (such as eating filthy sausages) to gain the guards’ approval, and bowed to their authority. His findings revealed that people exercise authority and submit to it, even to the point of hurting others or themselves, if there is group pressure to conform. These studies and others show the ideaof groupthink or a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment that results from in-group pressures.A social network is a web of social ties that links an individual to others. A social network may contain a group as small as three people to millions. Groups exist within the context of larger social units, such as social networks. A formal organization is a complex and structured secondary group that is deliberately created to achieve specific goals in an efficient manner. A formal organization is characterized by social statuses and roles are organized around shared expectations and goals, norms governing social relationships specify the members’ rights, duties, and sanctions, and a formal hierarchy includes leaders or people who are “in charge.” A voluntary association is a formal organization created by people who share a common set of interests and who are not paid for their participation. Unlike bureaucracies, as you’ll see shortly, voluntary associations vary quite a bit in their organizational structure. These organizations don’t have a formal 1hierarchy or rigid set of rules or regulations. These organizations vary and can attract a variety of social groups. Among others, voluntary associations can include charity, recreation, or other types of associations. An important type of formal organization is a bureaucracy. A bureaucracy is a formal organization that isdesigned to accomplish goals and tasks by large numbers of people in the most efficient and rational way possible. A bureaucracy has a high degree of division of labor and specialization, a hierarchy of authority, explicit written rules and regulations, impersonality, qualification base employment, and separation of work and ownership. Bureaucracies can have low morale, incompetent employees, and poor training and limited opportunities for advancement. Weak reward systems are seen as a main reason for inefficiency and a lack of motivation. Rigid rules cause bureaucratic ritualism which often overrides the goals of the organization. Other problems linked to bureaucracies are alienation or a feelingof isolation, meaninglessness, and powerlessness. This occurs when workers feels unconnected to others. This type of formal organization can also face communication problems. Finally, critics point out that workers may engage in Parkinson’s Law or the tendency to fill the time available for a task completely to avoid getting another assignment. Also common is the Peter Principle or the tendency for workers are to be promoted until they reach their “level of incompetence.” Another problem of a bureaucracy is the iron law of oligarchy is the tendency of a bureaucracy to become increasingly dominated by a small group of people. These problems can lead to dehumanization.The McDonaldization of society refers to when the organizational principles that underlie McDonald’s, the well-known fast food chain, are beginning to dominate “more and more sectors of American society as well as of the rest of the world.” The principles include efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. Bureaucracies develop informal networks which often make decisions for the organization. This is also true for lower-ranking workers where informal work rules emerge. The Hawthorne studies found that formal organizations must have informal organizations to exist. Human collaborations create codes, customs, conventions, traditions, and routines necessary to respond to situations. Contemporary workplaces use self-managing work teams which gather and interpret information, act on
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