PSY 2012 Exam 2 Study Guide 1 Contrast sensation and perception Sensation detection of physical energy by sense organs which then send information to the brain Perception the brain s interpretation of raw sensory inputs 2 Explain the difference between bottom up and top down processing Bottom up processes Sensory detection encoding construction of whole from parts Lines angles shapes colors etc Items events that grab our attention Top down processes Conceptually driven organization interpretation of information Experiences and expectations Items events to which we deliberately direct our attention goal directed orient our attention 3 Distinguish between an absolute threshold and a just noticeable difference threshold Absolute Threshold Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 of the time Noticeable Difference Threshold Detection depends partly on each person s experience expectations motivation and level of fatigue Binding Problem 4 Know how signal detection theory explains the likelihood of perceiving a stimulus RESPONSEPresent Absent Present Absent STIMULUS TRUE HIT FALSE FALSE ALARM FALSE MISS TRUE Binding Problem Perceptual Sets when our expectations influence our perceptions A given stimulus may trigger different perceptions based on context 9 Explain how perceptual constancies help us to organize our sensations into meaningful perceptions e g shape constancy size constancy Perceptual Constancies Perceiving objects as unchanging having consistent shape size and color even as illumination and retinal images change Allows us to flexibly navigate our world and rely on object recognition at the same time Shape Constancy We perceive a door as a door whether it appears as a rectangle or a trapezoid Size Constancy We perceive objects as the same size no matter how far away they are from us Perceptual Organization Distinct from surroundings Having some shape or form Located somewhere in space e g distance motion Being constant in size shape and lightness 10 Describe Gestalt psychology s contribution to our understanding of perception and be able to explain the 6 Gestalt principles Our brains do more than register information about the world i e bottom up processing We perceive objects as wholes within their overall context Closure When partial visual information is present our brains fill in what s missing Proximity Objects physically close to each other tend to be perceived as unified wholes Similarity All things being equal we see similar objects as compromising a whole much more so than dissimilar objects Continuity We still perceive objects as wholes even if other objects block part of them Symmetry We perceive objects that are symmetrically arranged as wholes more often than those that aren t Figure Ground Perceptually we make an instantaneous decision to focus attention on what we believe to be the central figure and lately ignore what we believe to be the background 11 Describe the process behind our perception of motion the Phi phenomenon A rapid series of slightly varying images creates perception of motion The brain perceives motion by comparing visual frames the brain compares images of what is to what was Phi Phenomenon Optical illusion of perceiving continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession 12 Define learning and identify two major types of learning Learning a relatively permanent change in thought or behavior that results from experience Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Noticed that his dogs showed a physiological response to cues associated with food Involves making associations with INVOLUNTARY reflexive responses An unconditioned stimulus food triggers an unconditioned response salivating A conditioned stimulus bell triggers a conditioned response salivating Salivating is an unconditioned response to food but a conditioned response to a bell It s conditional upon associative learning Unconditioned Unlearned Operant Conditioning Learning controlled by the consequences of the organism s behavior Edward L Thorndike Involves increasing or decreasing the likelihood of a VOLUNTARY deliberate response Law of Effect rewards increase behaviors punishments decrease behavior Positive reinforcement is when the frequency of a behavior is increased because you give the person or animal something pleasurable Example You study you get good grades Negative Reinforcement is when the frequency of a behavior is increased because you take away something that is aversive Example You study you feel less anxiety Positive Punishment is when a behavior is decreased by giving an aversive response to the behavior Negative Punishment is when a behavior is decreased by taking away something Example Spanking pleasurable Example Taking away Play time Grounding 13 Describe and identify the four basic components of classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus UCS Stimulus that elicits an automatic response Unconditioned response UCR Automatic response to a stimulus that does not need to be learned Conditioned stimulus CS Initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response due to association with an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned response CR Response elicited by a conditioned stimulus Example Dog food Example Salivating Example Bell Example Salivating 14 Summarize the processes of acquisition extinction spontaneous recovery generalization and discrimination Acquisition The initial learning of an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus The key requirement for successful acquisition is timing Best CS comes about 500 ms before UCS Extinction Repeated presentation of CS without UCS will eventually eliminate response to CS Extinction doesn t erase learning it suppresses it Spontaneous recovery Happens when CS briefly regains its power to elicit the response Stimulus generalization Tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the CS Stimulus discrimination Ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli 15 Define memory Memory Retention of information over time persistence of learning 16 Summarize the 3 stage processing model of memory 17 Identify two types of sensory memory Iconic Memory Visual Echoic Memory Auditory 18 Describe three functions of working short term memory and report its average span and duration Brief memory for material that you are currently processing Keeps information active and accessible Helps coordinate ongoing mental activities Brief no longer than 20 secs maybe even less
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