Psychology is the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior.Psychology spans multiple levels of analysis.Low level is tied to most biological influences.Higher level is tied to social influences.We cannot just examine just one level. Ex. Depression (Molecular, Neurochemical, Mental…)Challenges for psychology1. Human Behavior is difficult to predict2. Individual differences among people3. Reciprocal determinism – people influence one another. Difficult to predict causation4. Cultural differences can limit conclusions scientists can draw about human naturePseudoscience lacks the safeguard against confirmation bias and belief perseverance that characterize science. Warning signs of pseudoscience:1. Ad hoc immunizing hypothesis. Ex. ESP2. Lack of self-correction – in science incorrect claims tend to get discarded for better theoriesTypes of psychologists1. Clinical – cannot prescribe medication2. Counseling – work with people experiencing temporary or self contained problems3. School – assess and develop intervention programs4. Developmental – study why and how people change over time5. Experimental – uses sophisticated research methods to study memory, language and thinking6. Biopsychologists – examine physiological bases of behavior. Most work in research setting7. Forensic – assess, diagnose, and assist with rehab and prison inmatesCognitive economy is the combined simplicity and relevance of a categorization scheme or representation. 1. Heuristics: mental shortcutsMental shortcuts increase our thinking efficiencyDraw quick inferences2. Top-Down processingConcepts are knowledge about objects, actions and characteristcsSchemas are concepts we have stored about the relation of certain eventsHeuristics and biases prevent us from thinking scientificallyHindsight bias – “I knew it all along”Overconfidence – tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictionsDecision making is the process of selecting among a set of possible alternativesVarious decisions are made subconsciouslyFraming has an impact on decisions even when the underlying relevant to these decision is identicalCommon problem solving strategiesAlgorithms are step by step learned procedure used to solve a problemBreaking a problem into sub problemsDrawing analogiesChallenges to problem solvingSalience refers to how attention grabbing something is. We tend to focus our attention on the surface level properties of a problemMental sets – once we find a solution, we have trouble thinking of alternativesFunctional fixedness – difficulty conceptualizing an object that is typically used for one purpose for another purposeExplain the importance of science as a safeguard against biasesNaïve realism is the belief that we see the world precisely as it isWorks well in ordinary life but can lead to false beliefsConfirmation bias is the tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypothesis and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts themBelief perseverance is the tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts themScientific skepticism is the approach of evaluating all clams with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting themSix Principles of scientific thinking1. Ruling out rival hypotheses – Ask yourself whether we’ve excluded other plausible explanations for it2. Correlation vs. causation – Correlation doesn’t necessarily mean a connection3. Falsifiability – Ask yourself whether one in principle disprove it or whether its consistent with any conceivable body of evidence4. Replicability – make sure claims aren’t a one-time-only fluke5. Extraordinary claims – Whether this claim runs counter to many things we know already and, if it does, whether the evidence is extraordinary as the claim6. Occam’s razor – Whether the explanations offered is the simplest explanation that account for the data or whether simpler explanations can account for the data equally wellJust because two things are related, does not mean that one causes anotherRandom assignment of the participantsExperimental group receives the manipulationControl group does not receive the manipulationPitfalls of Experimental DesignPlacebo effect is the improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvementNocebo effect is the placebo effect’s EVIL TWIN (harm resulting from expectation of harm)Experimenter expectancy effect is when researchers hypotheses lead them to unintentionally biasthe outcome of a study. Demand characteristics is from an experiment that allow them to generate guesses regarding the experimenter’s hypotheses.Disguising the purpose of the study using “filler” items can help decreases thesedEthical obligations of researchers toward research participantsInstitutional Review BoardProtection from harms and discomfortJustification of deceptionDebriefingDescribe both sides of the debate on the use of animals as research subjectsResearchers must weigh both the potential scientific gains and the costs in death and suffering they produceMemory is the retention of information over timeMemory can be surprisingly good and bad in some situationsMemory illusionsThree systemsSensory – iconic/visual Much input never enter conscious processingShort termKeeps information active and accessibleHelps coordinate ongoing mental activitiesWe can lose info through STM in two ways:Decay – fades over timeInterference – loss of information due competition of new incoming informationLong termExplict memory is the memories we recall intentionally and of which we have conscious awareness (ex. Semantic and episodic) (we try to recall info)Implicit memory are memories we don’t deliberately remember on consciously Procedural memory refers to motor skills and habitsPriming is out ability t identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we’veencountered similar stimuliMethods of connecting informationEncoding – we must first attend to it; most events we experience are never encodedMneumonic – ROY G BIVRoles that schemas play in memory storageSchemas are organized knowledge structures, gives us frames of reference for new experiencesSchemas are useful but tend to oversimplify information; memory illusion and incorrect interpretationsWays of measuring memoryRecall – reproducing information learned earlierRecognition – identifying items previously learnedRelearning – faster learning of previously learned
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