All of this data comes from the 3 sources of crime dataCrime and Victimization TrendsSignificant drop in crime in 1990sOverall crime rate peaked in 70s and 80sCrime estimates differ depending on:Source of informationPopulation shiftsChanging types of crimeChanges in recording practicesBaby-Boomers of 1950sCaused increase in crime from 1960s to 1980sBecause baby-boomers were reaching peak crime ages (>30 yrs.)Eras of Crime in the USA1960-1980: steady increase in crime1980s: high, relatively stableCould be associated with crack/cocaine1990s-present: large and slow declineCrime dropped across all demographic groupsPossible factors?Receding crack/cocaine epidemicMass incarcerationImproved economyDemographicsChanges in policingUCR vs. NCVSWhy the difference?Measure different crimesIncreased reporting of victimizationIncreased police recording and participationVictimization Around the WorldInternational Crime Victims Survey (ICVS)Where does the USA rank? (compared to other Western democracies)Correlation of CrimeCorrelation: things vary together in a systematic wayCausation: a cause produces a certain effectCorrelation: does not mean causation!EcologicalRegional differencesSouth is most dangerous regionNortheast is least dangerousUrban/ruralCrime happens more often in cities than in rural areasPlace“Hot spots” of crimeCrime is spatially concentratedIndividualGenderBest predictor of offendingMost offenders are maleGender gap varies by crime type; shrinking over timeMurder/slaughter mostly by menProperty crime somewhat equalProstitution mostly by womenWomen’s crime rate is increasing compared to men’sTrends in Female CrimeWomen’s liberation movementWomen became more successful in workplaceWere seen as equals to menSisters in Crime (1975): women are equal to men in workplace; women’s crime will start to resemble that of menProposed explanations for gender gapTrait differencesSocialization differencesCognitive differenceSocial/political changesChanges in police practicesSocioeconomic status (SES)Inverse relationship as an ecological correlateSome disagreement as an individual correlateMore wealthy = less crimeCrime most likely in very rich and very poorPolice may be more likely to arrest someone who is poor than someone who is living in a rich neighborhoodRich more likely to get probation rather than immediate arrestConsider: crime typesInstrumental (profit, workplace, white collar)Expressive (violent, anger at the world)Common measures of SESEmployment statusIncomeEducationSES and IncarcerationInverse relationshipTypical prisonerLess than HS educationBelow poverty lineUnemployed or blue-collar workerRace and ethnicityControversial topicRacial minorities overrepresented in official records (a lot depends on police discretion; discrimination)1/9 black males ages 20-34 are in prisonPossible explanationsRacism and discrimination: is the criminal justice system biased/discriminative against minorities?Racial Threat Theory: the more minorities in an area, the more threatened whites will feel; use the criminal justice system to exert controlSocial and economic disadvantagePoor areas have very high crime ratesFamily dissolutionActual offending differencesCriminal Justice System PracticesEthnicity and CrimeLittle research on this correlateLatino offenders often dropped from sample, combined with other racial groupsAgeSteffensmeier and Ulmer, 2005What do the authors mean when they refer to “a claim of ‘invariance’ in the age-crime relationship?”Physical ability is greatest when youngerUnder the age of 21 trying to get alcoholWhat were some of the explanations they offered about why crime peaks in adolescence?Punishment isn’t as bad when you’re under 18What changes do they suggest may be responsible for the decline in offending?MaturityMeet new role models in the workplace, etc.(page 127 in supplemental reading)Age-Crime CurveCrime peaks before the age of 20 (late adolescence)Chronic OffendersFew offenders commit most offensesPhiladelphia Birth Cohort Study6% committed more than half of all offensesKey characteristic- early onsetMajor debate in criminologyAre these offenders different? How?Criminal justice policyGet “tough” approach: three strikes, MM, etc.3 strikes: 3rd offense is life in prisonMandatory Minimum: minimum amount of time a person must stay in prison depending on crime committedThe Costs of VictimizationCrime affects victims and societyTwo types of costsTangibleIntangibleDifficult to assess costsTangible CostsDirect costs to the victimMedical care, property loss, lost wagesCosts to societyCriminal justice system, prevention measuresTax-payers share these costsIntangible costsLong term stressPost-traumatic stress disorderFear of repeat victimizationHow much would you pay to not be afraid anymore?Live the rest of your life in fearReduced quality of lifeThe Nature of VictimizationVictim CharacteristicsDemographicsAgeHigher rates among younger peopleDeclining rates among the younger ages during 90sRaceBlacks more likely to be victimized than whiteRacial gap is narrowingGenderHigher rates among malesGender gap is narrowingMartial StatusRates lower among married and widowedSimilar among divorced/separated/never marriedSESInverse relationshipHigher social class less likely to be victimizedVictim-offender RelationshipVictims often know offendersStrangers were responsible for 42% of violent crimes in 2009Intimate partner, family member, friend, etc. usually commits the victimizationRepeat VictimizationThree characteristics that increase potentialTarget vulnerabilityEasy to get away withEx: abusive relationship; wife will not report husbandTarget gratifiabilityVictim has something that offender wantsEx: abuser wants control over who they are abusingTarget antagonismWife talks to neighbor and husband assumes they are having an affair1. victims often look like offenders in terms of demographics2. victims often personally know their offendersTheories of Victimization1. Victim Precipitation TheoryVictims initiate their own victimizationEx: women who dress provocatively get raped; use of derogatory names causes someone to get angryTwo types of precipitationActivePassiveSome personal or social characteristic causes another to want to victimize themEx: being a woman, a certain raceImpulsivity may lead to victimization2. Lifestyle TheoryVictimization risk is a function of our lifestyleHigh-risk lifestylesGangs, guns, drugsPeer groupsLifestyle-victimization
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