Midterm Writing assignment Biological Influences on Criminality • Classical theory assumes that criminal and non-criminal are alike (both think similarly) - NO fundamental difference between the two• The birth of science and Positivism challenged this notion- Forces beyond ones control led to criminality- Inconsistence on finding characteristics unique to criminality- Emphasis on objective measurement; science Precursors of Biological Criminology• Physiognomy (face)• Phrenology (skull – “bumpology”)• Phineas Gage Birth of Biological Criminology• 1859 Darwin’s Origin of Species outlined evolutionary theory• Cesare Lombroso, Italian prison physician - The “born criminal”- Atavism – biological throwback- Measured numerous physical attributes like sloping forehead, shoulders, ear placement, skull size, arm/leg/jaw length• Problem : determinism Criticism of the Theory• Charles Goring’s The English Convict - Used the newly invented correlation coefficient - On several dimensions students at Cambridge scored higher (!!) on criminogenic factors than didthose incarcerated - Problem: biological criminology failed to account for a variety of social factors that influence criminalityNevertheless, further development• Somatotyping: ecto/meso/endomorph• Everyone ranked 1-7 on these• Mesomorph physical characteristics : heavy chest, predominance of muscle, motor organs, large wrist/hands (athletic build)• Corresponding temperament: assertive and aggressive Genealogical Studies – Early Genetic• The Jukes – 1,000 descendants (280 paupers, 60 thieves, 7 murders, 140 criminalsm Classical CriminlogyBasics• Intelligence and rationality are fundamental human characteristics and form the basis for explaining human behavior• We understand ourselves and act to promote our own best interests• Crime is a product of free choice: weighing benefits against costs• Rational response is to increase costs and decrease benefits• Concerned with question of deterrence: design and test system punishment that will result in minimal amounts of crime The Enlightment (Age of Reason)• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)- Developed the concept of “social contract”• John Locke (1632-1704)• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788)• Ceasre Beccaria (1738-94)- Published the influential “Essay on Crimes and punishments” in 1764- Purpose of punishment should be deterrence and not retribution- For punishment to be effective: severe (in proportion to harm caused), certain and swift- Punishment be based on the degree of harm rather than intent- Opposed death penalty: Proposed only for treason- Laws be published • Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)- Published “Principles of moral legislation” in 1789- Utilitarianism- People are hedonistic - To reduce crime, the pain of the crime commission must outweigh the pleasure to be derived from criminal activity- Recommended the creation of centralized police force5 Key Principles of classical school• Rationality: Human beings have free will• Hedonism: Pleasure and pain are the major determinants of choice• Punishment: Criminal punishment is a deterrent to unlawful behavior• Due Process: Presumed innocent until proven guilty• Utilitarianism: The greatest happiness shared by greatest #Two Type of Deterrence1. Specific Deterrence: Involves sanctioning an individual to deter that particular individual 2. General Deterrence: Involves sanctioning an individual to deter other potential offenders by making her an exampleNeoclassical- Retains the philosophical assumptions of classical school- The roles of circumstances and context- Classical school focused on actus reus (guily act) and ignored mens rea (guilty mind) Rational Choice Theory• Criminals make conscious, rational and partially informed choice• Predicts that individuals choose to commit crime when the benefits outweigh the costs of disobeying the law • Crime will decrease when opportunities are limited, benefits are reduced and cost are increased Does Punishment deter crime?• High recidivism rates suggest not• Certainty matters somewhat- Severity has no/weak effect- Swiftness/celerity often not measuredCapital Punishment• Little evidence suggests it is an effective deterrent• Little difference in murder rate b/w DP and abolitionist states• South had the highest murder rate and its accounts for over 80% of executions• Racial disparities in imposition- Since 1930, nearly 90% of those executed for rape were AA- The odds of receiving a death sentence are nearly four times higher if the defendant is black than if he/she is whiteEugenics: The Promise of “good genes” (Galton)• “social Darwinism” (i.e. survival of the fittest)• Popular social-scientific platform pre-WWII• Attempt to select populations with valued traits• Achieved through altering reproductive habits accordingly Eugenic – Tragic Consequences• Remedies for poor genetic (the rancid fruit of determinism)- Immigration restrictions- Sterilizationo Buck vs Bell “3 generations of imbeciles is enough”• Death • The Final Solution (Hitler and Mein Kampf)Rebirth of Biological Criminology II• Twin Studies- Monozygotic (identical) twins – 100% of genes shared - Dizygotic (fraternal) twins/siblings – 50% of genes shared• General findings – there is a correspondence between genes and criminalityRebirth of Biological Criminology II• Adoption studies• For those adopted shortly after birth – this “controls” for the nature issue• General findings (correlation with criminality from weak to strong)- Adoptive father criminal- Biological father criminal - Both adoptive and biological father criminal Contemporary Biological Criminology II and III• Physical makeup/gene based theories- Testosterone/PMS- Biochemical's (neurotransmitters)- Nervous system (skin conductivity, resistance to anxiety reaction)• Biosocial Criminology- Attempts to locate social triggers that “activate” geneso Drug useo Complications during pregnancy/child birtho Head injurieso Lead exposureIntellectual Backdrop • Thinking inspired by two major eventso French Revolutiono Industrial Revolution• Elemental conceptso Mechanical solidarity (uniformity)o Organic solidarity (diversity/division of labor)• Gemeinschaft (community)/Gessellschaft (society)Fundamental Assumptions – As seen in Suicide • Context is supremely important• This shapes personal decisions• What
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