Elephant self awareness Plotnik et al 2006 Self recognition in an Asian elephant Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 10 1073 http www livescience com common media video player php videoRef Elephant XMarks Considered an indicator of self awareness mirror self recognition MSR has long seemed limited to humans and apes In both phylogeny and human ontogeny MSR is thought to correlate with higher forms of empathy and altruistic behavior Apart from humans and apes dolphins and elephants are also known for such capacities After the recent discovery of MSR in dolphins Tursiops truncatus elephants thus were the next logical candidate species We exposed three Asian elephants Elephas maximus to a large mirror to investigate their responses Animals that possess MSR typically progress through four stages of behavior when facing a mirror i social responses ii physical inspection e g looking behind the mirror iii repetitive mirror testing behavior and iv realization of seeing themselves Visible marks and invisible shammarks were applied to the elephants heads to test whether they would pass the litmus mark test for MSR in which an individual spontaneously uses a mirror to touch an otherwise imperceptible mark on its own body Here we report a successful MSR elephant study and report striking parallels in the progression of responses to mirrors among apes dolphins and elephants These parallels suggest convergent cognitive evolution most likely related to complex sociality and cooperation 2 19 2009 1 DIFFERENCES AMONG INFANTS 2 19 2009 2 1 Characteristics That Make Infants Unique Personality z z Sum total of enduring characteristics differentiating one individual from another From birth onward infants begin to show unique stable traits and behaviors that ultimately lead to their development as distinct special individuals 3 2 19 2009 Erikson Psychosocial Development Early experiences responsible for shaping key aspects of personalities z Stage 1 trust versus mistrust z Stage 2 autonomy versus shame anddoubt stage 2 19 2009 Trust sense of hope and success Mistrust sense of harsh unfriendly world Autonomy sense of independence Shame and doubt sense of self doubt and unhappiness 4 2 Another View Temperament and Stabilities in Infant Behavior z Temperament Refers to how children behave as opposed to what they do or why they do it Displayed as differences in general disposition from birth largely due initially to genetic factors Tends to be fairly stable well into adolescence Is not fixed and unchangeable and can be modified by childrearing practices 2 19 2009 5 Dimensions of Temperament Activity level z Irritability z 2 19 2009 6 3 Categorizing Temperament Babies can be described according to one of several temperament profiles z z z z Easy babies Difficult babies Slow to warm up babies Inconsistently categorized babies Thomas and Chess 1980 7 2 19 2009 Family Life in 21st Century z Number of single parent families has increased dramatically in last two decades z Average size of families is shrinking z Despite overall decline half million births to teenage women the vast majority of whom are unmarried z Close to 50 percent of children under age of 3 are cared for by other adults while their parents work and more than half of mothers of infants work outside home z One in three US children lives in low income households 2 19 2009 8 4 From Research to Practice How Does Infant Care Affect Later Development 9 2 19 2009 Good news bad news Good news direct benefits z High quality child care outside home produces only minor differences Good news indirect benefits z Children in lower income households and those whose mothers are single may benefit 2 19 2009 Bad news z Infants less secure when in low quality child care z Children who spend long hours lower have ability to work independently z Children who spend ten or more hours a week in group child care for a year or more have an increased probability of being disruptive in class 10 5 Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development Choosing the Right Infant Care Provider The American Psychological Association suggests that parents consider these questions in choosing a program z z z z z z z z Are there enough providers Are group sizes manageable Has the center complied with all governmental regulations and is it licensed Do the people providing the care seem to like what they are doing What do the caregivers do during the day Are the children safe and clean What training do the providers have in caring for children Is the environment happy and cheerful 11 2 19 2009 Chapter 3 The Preschool Years Module 3 1 Physical Development in the Preschool Years 2 19 2009 12 6 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS 2 19 2009 13 Looking Ahead What is the state of children s bodies and overall health during the preschool years z How do preschool children s brains and physical skills develop z 2 19 2009 14 7 Physical Growth Growing Body z z By age 2 25 to 30 pounds and close to 36 inches tall By 6 years old about 46 pounds and 46 inches tall 2 19 2009 15 Individual Differences in Height and Weight Averages mask great individual differences in height and weight z Gender differences z National and global economic differences z 2 19 2009 16 8 Changes in Body Shape and Structure z Bodies vary in height weight and shape z Toddler fat burns off z Internal physical changes occur 2 19 2009 17 Nutrition Eating the Right Foods Slower growth less caloric requirements z Children can maintain appropriate intake of food if provided with nutritious meals z Inappropriate encouragement to increase food intake beyond an appropriate level may cause obesity z 2 19 2009 18 9 Avoiding a Butter Battle Good nutrition without adversarial situations occur by z z z Providing a variety of foods low in fat and high in nutritional and iron content Allowing development of natural preferences Exposing children to a wide variety of foods 19 2 19 2009 Health and Illness z 7 to 10 colds and other minor respiratory illnesses in each of years from age three to five Runny nose due to common cold is most frequent z 2 19 2009 Majority of US preschoolers are reasonably healthy 20 10 Injury During the Preschool Years Accidents are greatest risk z Danger of injuries z High levels of physical activity Curiosity Lack of judgment z Individual differences Gender Cultural Socioeconomic 2 19 2009 21 Range of Preschool Dangers Falls z Burns z Drowning z Suffocation z Auto accidents z Poisons z 2 19 2009 22 11 Silent Danger Lead
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