Memory Chapter 7MemorySlide 3Slide 4PowerPoint PresentationBuilding a MemoryAn Information-Processing ModelUpdates to the I-P ModelSlide 9Two-Track Processing: Automatic vs. EffortfulAutomatic ProcessingEffortful ProcessingEbbinghaus’s ExperimentSlide 14Serial PositionFacts vs. SkillsTwo-Track MemorySlide 18Sleep and MemoryBuilding MemoriesEncoding MeaningEncoding ImagesSensory MemoryShort-Term Memory: DurationStorage CapacitiesHow Does the Brain Store Memory?Synaptic ChangesSlide 28Slide 29Stress-Related MemoriesFlashbulb MemoriesRetrieval: Getting Information OutRetrieval CuesContext EffectsSlide 35Moods and MemoriesForgettingSeven Sins of Memory (Daniel Schacter, 1999)Slide 39Encoding FailureStorage DecayRetrieval FailureInterferenceForgettingRepressed MemoriesMemory ConstructionMisinformationSlide 48False Memory and Eyewitness TestimonyImagination and MemoriesSource AmnesiaSlide 52Children’s Eyewitness RecallRepressed or Constructed Memories of AbuseGuidelines for Thinking about Recovered Memories of Sexual AbuseHorror Carves a MemoryTips for Improving MemoryMemoryChapter 7MemoryStudying MemoryAn Information-Processing ModelTwo Memory TracksBuilding MemoriesEncoding: Getting Information InStorage: Retaining InformationRetrieval: Getting Information OutMemory ForgettingEncoding FailureStorage DecayRetrieval FailureMemoryMemory ConstructionMisinformation and Imagination EffectsSource AmnesiaChildren’s Eyewitness RecallRepressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse?Improving MemoryMemory is the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage and retrieval of informationBuilding a MemoryTo remember any information or experience requires:•__________: getting information into our brain•__________: retaining the encoded information•__________: getting the information back out of memory storageAn Information-Processing ModelA model of memory based on a computer (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)1. Experience is first recorded, for just a moment, as a __________2. Information is processed into __________, encoded through rehearsal–Holds a few items briefly3. Information moves to __________for later retrievalUpdates to the I-P Model•Some memories are formed through ____________________, without our awareness•____________________: a view of short-term memory that stresses conscious, active processes–Working memory is not just a storage shelf, but an active desktop for linking new and old informationAn Information-Processing ModelTwo-Track Processing: Automatic vs. Effortful•We __________ process vast amounts of everyday information•We remember new and important information through __________ processingAutomatic Processing•We automatically process information about–__________•“The definition was at the top of the right page”–__________•“I went to the store before lunch”–__________•“This is the third time I’ve seen her today!”Effortful Processing•Requires close attention and effort•Memory can be improved through __________, the conscious repetition of information•Rehearsal was the subject of one of many studies of memory by Hermann Ebbinghaus (next slide)Ebbinghaus’s Experiment•Studied his own learning and forgetting •Used lists of nonsense syllables–JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX, SUJ, DAX, VUM, etc.•Tested his memory for the list every day.•The more he practiced out loud on day 1, the less time needed to relearn it on day 2Effortful Processing•__________effect: we remember better if study or practice is spread over time–Cramming is __________effective!•____________________: repeated quizzing of previously studied material also helpsSerial Position•____________________: We remember the first and last items in a list best•After a delay, we only remember the first items bestFacts vs. Skills•H.M. and others with certain traumatic brain injuries cannot form new explicit memories–Cannot learn new facts•However, they can learn new skills, and be classically conditioned–E.g., mirror-writing, jigsaw puzzles, navigation–Won’t remember learning these skillsTwo-Track Memory•__________memory: retaining skills or conditioning, often without conscious awareness•__________memory: memories of facts and personal events that can be consciously retrieved•Separate brain regions: –Encoding of new explicit memories requires the __________, though they are consolidated elsewhere–Implicit memory formation requires the __________Two-Track MemorySleep and Memory•Sleep supports ____________________•During sleep, the hippocampus and cortex display rhythmic patterns of activity, as if communicating with each other•The brain may be “replaying” the day’s experiences as it transfers them to the cortex for long-term storageBuilding Memories•__________: Getting Information In•__________: Retaining Information•__________: Getting Information OutEncoding Meaning•We may encode meaning rather than raw information•When asked to recall text, we often report the meaning, or gist, rather than the raw text•It can be difficult to remember things without a meaningful context–You will more easily remember what you read and hear if you translate it into personally meaningful informationEncoding Images•We can more easily remember things we can process visually as well as meaningfully •Memorable sentences often evoke powerful __________, or mental pictures–High-imagery words are more easily remembered than low-imagery wordsSensory Memory•Storage is extremely short, especially for visual sensory memory •Study: Sperling (1960) flashed nine letters for 1/20th of a second. •Sensory memory made the letters momentarily available for encoding.Short-Term Memory: Duration•Short-term memories (or “STMs” as on the slide, but then insert the abbreviation into the title in parentheses) disappear quickly.•Study: Peterson (1959) presented 3-letter strings (CHJ, DPZ), and prevented rehearsal by having people count backward.•Result: letters 50% gone at 3 seconds, 90% gone at 12 seconds.Storage Capacities•Short-term memory capacity is __________–The Magical Number Seven, plus or minus two (George Miller, 1956)•Long-term memory seems to have __________ and can endure for __________How Does the Brain Store Memory?•Memory is not stored like books in a library, in neat, precise locations. •Rather, different aspects of a memory are assigned to various groups of