Psych 100 1H Focus Questions Chapter 10 pg 351 374 Class 21 10 14 2013 1 What is an analogy and how do we use it in scientific and political judicial reasoning How do analogy problems test reasoning ability How is reasoning by analogy a type of inductive reasoning reasoning the way we use stored memories to problem solve intelligence the general capacity to problem solve analogy similarity in behavior function or relationship between situations that are different from each other Ex use of the baseball glove and butterfly net how we use it in scientific reasoning used with biologists neuroscientists for study of human made devices such as computers natural selection and the role of gravity in planetary motion Experiment researchers tested high school college students with little training on electric circuits Students made analogies to water moving through pipes or crowds of people Those with plumbing analogies answered the questions better best for thinking about batteries and voltage a in scientific reasoning comparing different functions Ex plumbing and traffic to electrical components batteries and resistors how we use it in political judicial reasoning research has found that good analogies are generated by students who defend political view points ex made analogies about finance issues when discussing government s debt Ex Miller Analogy Test made up of all analogy problems Ex PLANE is the AIR as BOAT is to a submarine b water c oxygen d pilot evidence first moves through the second so correct paring would be BOAT to water b in judicial and political reasoning imagery often sways emotions analogy problems test reasoning ability c as tests of reasoning ability connecting subtle relationships Miler Analogies test and Raven s Progressive Matrices test Raven s Progressive Matrices Test used by psychologists as a measure of fluid intelligence items are visual patterns rather than words ex three patterns in each of the top two rows and figure out the rule that relates the first two patterns in each row to the third pattern reasoning by analogy a type of inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning attempt to infer some new principle proposition from observations facts that serve as clues also referred to as hypothesis construction Ex detectives solving a crime reasoning that is founded on perceived analogies or other similarities induction using instances to produce a generalization ex wet sidewalk dripping eyes indicating raining 2 Differentiate between the availability bias the confirmation bias and the predictable world bias providing evidence for the existence of each availability bias availability bias when we reason we tend to rely on information that is available to us and ignore information that is less available Ex students asked if letter d was more likely to occur in first position or third position of a word most people said the first confirmation bias natural tendency of people to confirm rather than disconfirm their current hypotheses Experiment subjects were to discover the experimenter s rule for sequencing numbers subjects began to choose sequences consistent with their hypothesis which they believe to be correct Ex hypothesis was even numbers increasing by twos but actual rule was any increasing sequence of numbers predictable world bias superstitions arise because people fail to realize that coincidences are often just coincidences most often seen in games of pure chance Ex gambling maximizing best strategy to choose the same color or number on every trial so over the long run you will win blank percentage of that trial matching vary their guesses over trials in a way that matches the probability of the select color number Ex rats are rewarded more often for pressing a red bar than a green one they learn to press the red one bias is a tendency to engage in inductive reasoning in situations where reasoning is pointless because the relationship in question is random 3 Define deductive reasoning What do we know about humans bias toward content in deductive problems and their use of models to solve these problems Deductive Reasoning deduction attempt to derive logically the consequences that might be true if premises are accepted as true also known as logical proof Ex mathematics inferring instances from a general principle Ex Major premise If A B minor premise and C A Conclusion thus C B true But if A B and C B thus C A wrong series problem requires you to organize items into a series on the basis of comparison statements and then arrive at a conclusion that was not contained in any single statement syllogism presents a major proposition and a minor proposition that you must combine mentally to see if the conclusion is true false or indeterminate humans bias toward content in deductive problems Ex All living things need water Roses need water Therefore roses are living things All insects need oxygen Mice need oxygen Therefore mice are insects conclusion is not valid both syllogisms is indeterminate only 30 of subjects got the problem correct but got the second one right proves we cannot resist being influenced by real world knowledge The Concrete Nature of Deductive Reasoning Logic more dependent upon actual concrete experiences than abstract principles like mathematics refutes Piaget s strict Stage of Formal logical Operations a bias toward content rather than formal logic indicates natural tendency more toward inductive reasoning b aids for deductive problems Euler diagrams drawing visualizing relationships fig 10 2 mental images ex Einstein thought experiments using clocks and trains use of models to solve these problems deductive reasoning makes much use of diagrams diagrams allow the individual to see the solution Euler circles can be used to represent major premise of the syllogism mental models reasoner must understand the premises and find a way to represent the information mentally in an easily accessible form content of problem is more linked to mental models than euler circles people with large working memory spans are better at solving syllogisms requiring more than one model performance on syllogisms correlates strongly with visuospatial ability than with verbal ability 4 How are insight problems a combination of inductive and deductive reasoning What do they tell us about mental sets and the mental processes that lead to insight Include an example of an insight problem in your response insight problems combination of inductive and deductive reasoning and
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