Chapter 5: LearningLearningLearning: a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice.Pavlov’s Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning: learning to make an involuntary (reflex) response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex.Reflex: -involuntary responses: not controlled by personUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response.Food: represents unconditioned stimulus (in Pavlov’s dogs)Unconditioned Response (UCR): involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus.Salivation: UCR (in Pavlov’s dogs)Neutral Stimulus (NS): stimulus that has no effect on the desired response.Conditioned Stimulus (CS): stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus.Bell: conditioned stimulus (in Pavlov’s dogs)Conditioned Response (CR): learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus.Salivation—but to the bell. (in Pavlov’s experiment)Basic principles in classical conditioning:1. Condition stimulus must come before the unconditioned stimulus2. Condition stimulus and unconditioned stimulus must be paired closely in time3. ^Pairing must occur several times4. Stimulus that represents the condition stimulus must be something unique or distinctive.neutral response always = conditioned response (but only after conditioning has occurred)unconditioned response = conditioned response (after conditioning has occurred)Stimulus generalization: Tendency to respond with a conditioned response to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus.ex: different tone of bell- still produces response, but a weaker one.Stimulus discrimination: the tendency to stop making the general response because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.ex: the dogs never receive food with the different bell tonesExtinction: disappearing or weakening of a learned response following the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.when you pair both the CS and the US, but then take away the CS, there is extinction (because it is used to both).Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred.Higher-order conditioning: occurs when a strong CS is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus.Example?What are some other examples of classical conditioning experienced by humans?Conditioned emotional response: emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli.-vicarious condition – ex: kids in line crying-> others begin to cry as well.Conditioned taste aversion: development of nausea or an aversive response to a particular taste b/c of nausea reaction after only one association.Biological Preparedness: tendency of animals to learn certain associationswith only one or a few pairings due to the survival value of the learning.(We learn things quickly in order to survive)Why does classical conditioning work?Pavlov: “activates the same place in the animals brain” –Stimulus Substitution*Cognitive perspective: -conditioned stimulus provides some sort of expectancyOperant ConditioningOperant (any behavior that is voluntary) conditioning: the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasurable and not-pleasurable consequences to responses.**Depends on what happens after the response!Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Responses followed by pleasurable consequences are repeated, and those that are followed by unpleasant consequences are not repeated.BF Skinner: studied observable, measurable behavior (think: pigeon pecking)Reinforcement: any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.Primary reinforcer: -a reinforcer meeting a basic biological need or driveSecondary reinforcer: -reinforcing via pairing with a primary reinforcerPositive reinforcement: -addition of a pleasurable stimulus (ADD)doesn’t mean its good or bad—means ADDING something-ex: getting $$ for good grades; getting praise for being nice (the hope is to INCREASE target behavior)Negative reinforcement: -removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulusSUBTRACTION-ex: taking away chores for getting good gradesComparing classical and operant conditioning:**see table 5.1 in textOPERANTCLASSICALResult= increase in existing behaviorResult= creation of a new response to a stimulus that did not normally produce that responseVoluntary BehaviorInvoluntary BehaviorConsequences (after response)Consequences (before response)Reinforcement is immediateConditioned stimulus (i.e.: bell) must occur right before UCS (close in time)Expectancy developsExpectancy develops for UCS to follow CSReinforcement SchedulesDescribe the difference between partial and continuous reinforcement:Partial= more difficult to suppress ; Continuous= new behaviorDescribe the difference between interval and ratio schedules:Interval= amount of time ; Ratio= #of responsesHow is reinforcement provided in each of the following schedules of reinforcement?Fixed rationumber of desired responses is always the same-ex: every ten items you sell, you get reinforced with payment-ex: pigeon pecks every three times gets foodVariable rationumber of responses required to receive reinforcement changes each time reinforcement is received-- # of responses required varies-most powerful reinforcement schedule in terms of response-ex:Fixed intervalAlways the same time before reinforcement opportunity-ex: going to dentist (during time leading up to dentist appointment-floss more)Variable intervalReinforcement possibilities after varying amount of time-ex: fishing (never know when you will catch a fish)Punishment: any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again.Positive punishment (punishment by application): addition of an unpleasant stimulusNegative punishment (punishment by removal): removal of pleasurable stimulus**table 5.3 in textExamples of positive/negative reinforcement and positive/negative punishment:Describe some problems with punishment:Punishment can become too severeFear and anxietyLyingAvoidanceModeling of aggressionIncrease a negative behaviorAvoid the punisher and not the behaviorShaping: reinforcement of SIMPLE steps in behavior that leads to a DESIRED, more COMPLEX behavior.Small stepsEffective
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