PSU PSYCH 100 - Chapter 3: Structure of the eye: The front

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Chapter 3:Structure of the eye: The frontSclera- White outer surface Pupil and Iris- Opening for light to enter the eyeCornea- Focuses light into the eyeLens- Uses process of accommodation to focus image on retinaRetina- back of the eye where light is focused - Contains three layers Blind spot: exits at the optic nerve Closer look at the retinaRods vs cones- Number: There are more rods than cones - Location: Rods are in the periphery, while cones are more centrally located - Function: Rods are made for scoptopic vision, cones are for photopic vision- Function: differences in acuity and color visionVisual Information Processing- Parallel Processing- Ventral Stream: Contains a flow of visual information about “what” where looking at in our visual field- Dorsal Stream: Contains a flow of visual information about “where” it is located Theories of Color VisionProcessing Color VisionSubtractive Coloring- Removing wavelengths of light being reflected, such as when you mix coloredpaintsAdditive Coloring- Increasing wavelengths of light being reflected from the surface with mixing colored lightsProcessing Color VisionYoung and Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory- Color vision if based on three photopigments: red, green, and blue- Describes processing at the retinal level, but not corticalKarl Hering’s opponent processing theory- Colors arranged in specific antagonistic pairs- Explains central processingSleep and Dreaming- Chapter 4Sleep Deprivation- Question: is sleep necessary?- Peter Tripp stayed awake for 201 hours in 1959- Randy Gardner (1965) stayed awake for 11 days- Reading from “sleep thieves”- Fatal familial insomnia Why do we sleep?Preservation (Adaptive) Theory- Preservation and Protection: Animals evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most activeMaturation Theory- Sleep provides time to growthRestorative Theory:- Sleep replenishes chemicals and repairs cellular damageMemory Storage Theory:- Allows us time to consolidate and organize our memories Sleep Rhythms:Circadian Rhythm:- 24 hour bodily rhythmZeitgebers:- Cues to help entrain our rhythm Free Running Cycle:- Without the presence of any zeitgebers Suprachiasmatic Nucleus:- Internal clock tells people wake up/fall asleep How do we measure sleep?Stages of Sleep: Pre-sleep-Beta waves (smaller/faster)- person is wide awake and mentally active -Alpha waves (larger/slower)- person is relaxed or lightly sleepingStage 1 (theta waves)- light sleep lasting roughly 10-15 minutesStage 2- temperature, breathing, and heart rate decrease; sleep spindle and K complex Stage 3 and 4- (delta waves)- deepest points of sleep with delta waves presentStages of Sleep: REMREM (Rapid Eye Movement)- Active stage when dreaming occurs- EEG patterns resembles a wakeful state (paradoxical sleep)- Muscles still relaxed - REM rebound can occur Sleep DisordersTwo Main CategoriesDysomnias: Difficulty with initiating or obtaining sleep or excessive sleepiness Parasomnias: Problems related to sleep stages Average amount of sleep: 20 minutes DysomniasInsomnia: difficulties with initiating and/or maintaining sleep- May be caused by a number of factors, from anxiety to behavioral problems Sleep Disorders: Parasomnias - Sleep walking (somnambulism)-Generally occurs during deeper stages of sleep-Also appears to be developmentally linked- REM Behavior Disorder -Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep leads the person to act our their dreams -More common in old ageWhy we dream?-Psychoanalytic Approach: Dreams are a mechanism for wish fulfillment -Manifest Content: Reflects the dream itself and what happens -Latent Context: underlying true meaning of the dream Other theories -Cognitive Theory: Dreams can be used to analyze and potentially solve problems-Activation Information: Dreams are relatively random, but involve daytime experiences October 24, 2012Learning- Chapter 5 Classical Conditioning: A type of learning where an organism comes to create associations between multiple stimuli Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning through his study of salivary reflexes with dogsClassical Conditioning: Terms- Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning- Unconditioned Response: A reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning - Conditioned Stimulus: An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus- Conditioned Response: A response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus Temporal Contiguity Theory- Responses develop when the interval between UCS and CS is very short- Backward conditioning?Contingency Theory - Association was dependent upon the perceived predictability of the CS of the UCS Rescorla and Wagner’s StudyTwo types of trials: -Format A- Tone Followed by shock-Format B- Tone with light followed by shockRandomized trials: A,B,B,A,A,A,B,A,B,B,B,A,etcClassical Conditioning: Principles Generalization: A new stimulus resembling the original elicits a response similar toCR Extinction: Weakening of the relationship between the CR and the CS by continual presentation of the CS aloneSpontaneous Recovery: CR recurring after a time delay Higher order conditioning- A procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus Example: Why I hate Dave Matthews October 31, 2012Classical Conditioning: Applied - Conditioning Fear: John Watson’s experiment on 11 month old “Little Albert”-Each time he reached for the rat, Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert - Little Albert’s fear generalized to just about anything white and furryWhat could Watson and Rayner have done to remove this fear from Little Albert if they were given the opportunity?- Conditioned Taste Aversion: When an organism becomes nauseated some time after eating a certain food, which then becomes aversive to the organism - Original Study: John Garcia and his radiated rats - Physiological Conditioning: Even physiological responses can be classicallyconditioned, which demonstrates that the process is truly automatic- Learned helplessness- Tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures-Classic Study (Martin Seligman) -Real-Life ApplicationsOperant Conditioning - Operant


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PSU PSYCH 100 - Chapter 3: Structure of the eye: The front

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