Lecture 2Outline of Last LectureI. What you should Be Able to do at the End of this ChapterII. Quick Summary of What You Need to KnowIII. What Properties Define LifeIV. Life’s Defining PropertiesV. Life’s Three DomainsVI. Biological OrganizationVII. Diversity and Unity of LifeVIII. Unifying Theme of Biology: EvolutionIX. Science: A Way of Looking at the WorldX. Major Themes of BiologyOutline of Current LectureI. What you should Be Able to do at the End of this ChapterII. Quick Summary of What You Need to KnowIII. The Properties of an Element Depend on the Structure of its AtomsIV. Electrons Determine the Chemical Reactivity of an AtomV. Electron Transfer and Ionic BondingVI. Polar Covalent Bonds in a Water MoleculeCurrent Lecture- What You Should Be Able to do at the End of this Chapter:1. Compare the physical properties (mass and charge) and the locations of electrons, protons, and neutrons.2. Explain how the number of valence electrons of an atom is related to its chemical properties.3. Distinguish among covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds. Compare them in terms of the mechanisms by which they form and their relative bond strengths.4. Explain how hydrogen bonds between adjacent water molecules govern many of the properties of water.5. Explain how water ionizes; contrast acids and bases 6. Convert the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution to a pH value. Describe how buffers help minimize changes in pH.These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. BIOL 101 1st editionII. Quick Summary of What You Need to Know:- Protons (Positive), NEUTRons (NEUTRal), and ElectroNs (Negative), Protons and Neutrons located within the nucleus, and electrons found outside the nucleus in orbitals- Valence electrons (unbound electrons in the outermost orbital) determine how many other molecules a single element can bind to.- A Covalent Bond is when two atoms share electrons, and these are relatively strong bonds. There are other forms of covalent bonds, including Polar and Non-Polar covalent bonds. A Non-Polar covalent bond is when electrons are shared equally between atoms, and Polar covalent bonds are bonds where there is an uneven charge on a given side of the bond, due to an uneven sharing of electrons. Hydrogen Bonds are bonds in which a hydrogen atom is in a covalent bond with one atom, but is being shared with another negatively charged molecule. These are weak bonds. An Ionic Bond is a bond in which an atom has either lost (cation) or gained (anion) an electron, another atom gives up or takes an electron, and a bond is formed between the two atoms sharing the electron. Ionic bonds are strong bonds, but not as strong as Covalent Bonds.- Water is Cohesive (forms hydrogen bonds with other water), and is Adhesive (forms Hydrogen bonds with polar surfaces). Water is a polar covalent bond, which creates a partial negative charge on oxygen and a partially positive charge on the hydrogens. The partial charge allows opposites to attract, and water molecules bunch together via hydrogen bonding. Together, all of these water molecules make a collectively strong bond and a “universal” solvent, due to being able to pull apart any weak bond thrown in the mix by the partial charges.- Water ionizes due to its constant breaking and reforming of hydrogen bonds. Occasionally hydrogen protons switch around to and from oxygen atoms. For example, this may turn it into a Hydronium ion if oxygen gains a hydrogen (H3O+) or a Hydroxide ion if oxygen loses a hydrogen (OH-). It contrasts acids and bases via water being neither acid nor base, with a pH of 7.These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. BIOL 101 1st edition- [H+] [OH-] pH Acid/Base/Neutral10 ^-3 10 ^-11 3 Acid10 ^-8 10^-6 8 BaseIf you have the H+ concentration, whatever the negative exponent is will be your pH. If you are given an OH- concentration, your H+ will be equal to the exponent of your OH- plus 14. For example, if your OH- is 10 ^-11, your H+ is 10 ^-3 (-11 + 14 = 3(then just make sure it’s negative)). Buffers have an extremely stable pH. If hydrogen ions are put in, the base in the solution will neutralize a change in pH. Likewise, if hydroxide ions are put into a solution, the base with neutralize a change.III. The Properites of an Element Depend on the Structure of its AtomAn element consists of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons are positively charged and reside in the nucleus, neutrons have no charge and reside in the nucleus, and electrons are negatively charged and circle the nucleus in orbitals. The number of protons an element has determines its Atomic Number, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in an atom if uncharged, and the neutrons are normally equal to the number of protons as well. Isotopes vary in number of neutrons.IV. Electrons Determine the Chemical Reactivity of an AtomThis section basically says that the more valence electrons an atom has, the more bonds that can be made. Valence electrons are electrons on the outermost orbital or shell of the atom, and they are freely able to be bonded with by another atom. The number of valence electrons also determines the stability of an atom; if the outermost shell of an atom is filled with 8 electrons it is the most stable. This is referred to as the Octet Rule.These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. BIOL 101 1st editionV. Electron Transfer and Ionic BondingThis slide shows an ionic bond. Na has 1 valence electron and Cl is missing one valence electron to make up 8. The Na is an anion (one too many electrons) and the Cl is a cation (too few electrons). The Na loses its extra electron and Cl takes it in through the opposite charges, thus both atoms have a complete valence shell forthwith. This is called an ionic bond, and is a strong bond.VI. Polar Covalent Bonds in a Water MoleculeA Polar Covalent bond is a bond where the charge is shared unequally throughout the molecules. Oxygen is a negative ion with negative charge on one side, and the hydrogens areboth positive ions that make a positive charge on the other side. This inequality of charge onthe molecules is based on