Lecture 28Outline of Last Lecture(1) Summarize the early evidence indicating that most genes specify the structure of proteins.(2) Outline the flow of genetic information in cells, from DNA to protein.(3) Compare the structures of DNA and RNA.(4) Explain why the genetic code is said to be redundant and virtually universal.(5) Compare the processes of transcription and DNA replication, identifying both similarities and differences.Outline of Current Lecture(1) Identify the features of tRNA that are important in decoding genetic information and converting it into “protein language.” (2) Explain how ribosomes function in protein synthesis.(3) Diagram the processes of initiation, elongation, and termination in protein synthesis.(4) Give examples of the different classes of mutations (nonsense, mis-sense, insertions, deletions), that affect the base sequence of DNA, and explain the effects that each has on the protein produced.These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. BIOL 101 1st EditionI. tRNA- tRNA is important in protein synthesis because it is basically the instructions for the ribosomes to follow. It is a long sequence of nucleotides that are read and properly attended to by a process in the ribosomes. The fact that it is all one long sequence of nucleotides allows it to be read correspondingly.II. Ribosomes in Protein Synthesis- Ribosomes are all along the outside of the rough ER. When RNA is out in the cytosplasm, its grabbed by the ribosomes and transferred in a simple process.- mRNA and rRNA combine and bring in a tRNA that has an amino acid connected to it onto a P site. Another tRNA comes on an A site and has the polypeptide chain cut off of the amino acid on the P site and stuck onto the tRNA on the A site. The tRNA on the P site is sent to the E site and drops off, while the one on the A site is sent to the P site to do the samething the last one on the P site did while a new tRNA comes in with an amino acid to the A site. This happens until a stop codon is read.These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. BIOL 101 1st EditionIII. Initiation, Elongation, and Termination in Protein SynthesisInitiation: Translation is started by mRNA binding with a start codon via a small subunit. A large subunit (normally amino acid) binds to the tRNA and the tRNA goes into the T site, making the A site available.Elongation: This is the cycle where a tRNA with an amino acid is sent to the A site, the tRNA on the P site has it’s polypeptide chain cut off and put onto the carboxyl end on the A site, and the newly freed tRNA is sent to the E site and dropped off while the tRNA that has the chain moves to the P site.Termination: Termination of protein synthesis is just a stop codon going through the A site and the RF hydrolyzes the peptide chain which releases the newly made protein and disassembles the ribosome.IV. DNA Mutations- Missense: A mutation where a nucleotide is replaced with another, resulting in a different amino acid that renders the protein altogether non-functional.- Nonsense: A mutation where a stop codon is thrown in prematurely, resulting in an unformed protein.- Insertion: Insertion is the insertion of a nucleotide where thereshouldn’t be one. This could do a number of things, none of them particularly good. It could code for a stop, send in the wrong amino acid, code for it to not stop, etc.These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. BIOL 101 1st Edition- Deletion: Deletion is the deletion of a nucleotide, and this can also have some unfavorable effects that include those of insertion.These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. BIOL 101 1st