Zoology 101 Final Exam Review OutlineI. Cellular Respiration and FermentationA. Oxidation by Catabolic Pathways1) ATP Productiona) Fermentationi) Anaerobic partial degradation of sugarsb) Anaerobic respirationi) Respiration without oxygenc) Aerobic respirationi) Oxygen and organic fuel are reactants2) Redox Reactionsa) Reductioni) Addition of electrons to a substanceii) Initiated by reducing agent (electron donor)b) Oxidationi) Loss of electrons from a substanceii) Initiated by oxidizing agent (electron acceptor)c) C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP3) Electron Transport Chain Componentsa) NAD+i) electron carrierii) cycles between oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH) statesb) dehydrogenasesi) oxidizing agent enzymesii) remove pair of H atoms from substrate and add to NAD+c) electron transport chaini) proteins in inner membrane of mitochondriaii) transports electrons from NADH to O2 moleculesiii) exergonic reactiond) glucose NADH electron transport chain O24) Preview of Cellular Respirationa) Glycolysisi) Occurs in cytosolii) Splits glucose into two pyruvate moleculesiii) Eukaryotes: pyruvate oxidized into acetyl CoA in mitochondrial matrix, releasing NADHb) Citric Acid Cyclei) Glucose broken down into CO2ii) Substrate-level phosphorylationc) Oxidative Phosphorylationi) Electron transport chain in inner mitochondrial membraneii) End of chain: hydrogen and electrons bind with oxygen to form H2Oiii) Energy released by chain used by mitochondria to form ATP from ADP- ATP synthaseiv) Responsible for making approximately 30 ATP per cycle (most of ATP)d) Substrate-level Phosphorylationi) Enzyme transfers phosphate group from substrate to ADP, which forms ATPB. Glycolysis1) Occurs in cytosol2) Energy investment phasea) 2 ATP 2ADP + 2PO43) Energy payoff phasea) 4ADP + 4PO4 4 ATPb) 2NAD+ + 4e- + 4H+ 2NADH + 2H+4) Net reactionsa) 1 glucose 2 pyruvate + 2H2Ob) 4ATP formed – 2ATP used 2ATPc) 2NAD+ + 4e- + 4H+ 2NADH + 2H+5) NADH molecules are electron shuttles from food to storageC. Citric Acid Cycle Completes Oxidation1) Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoAa) Occurs in mitochondrial matrixb) Pyruvate’s carbonyl group removed as CO2c) Remaining fragment is oxidized to form acetated) Electrons reduce NAD+ to NADHe) CoA bonds to acetate to form acetyl CoA2) The Citric Acid Cyclea) Produces 28-30 ATPb) Occurs in mitochondrial matrixc) Does not occur in anaerobic respirationd) 3 NAD+ are converted into 3NADH and 3H+e) 1 FAD is converted into 1 FADH2f) 1 ATP is made by substrate-level phosphorylationg) 2 CO2 are releasedD. Chemiosmosis Couples Energy Transport and ATP Synthesis1) Electron Transporta) Electron transferred from NADH to beginning of complex Ib) Complexes I, III, IVi) Proton pumpsii) Move H+ from mitochondrial matrix to intermembrane spaceiii) Powered by electron movement down chainc) Complex IIi) Adds electrons to chain by oxidizing FADH2d) Cytochromesi) Electron carriers throughout chain2) Chemiosmosisa) Hydrogen concentration gradient across membrane drives workb) ATP synthasei) Enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and phosphateii) Uses energy of hydrogen concentration gradient to power ATP synthesis- Hydrogen ions move from intermembrane space to mitochondrial matrixiii) Responsible for making most of ATPc) Partsi) Stator – half channel anchored in membraneii) Rotor – spinning unit with H+ binding sitesiii) Internal rod – axis of rotor reaching catalytic knobiv) Catalytic knob – active sites produce ATPd) Proton-motive forcei) [H+] gradient that drives workE. Fermentation1) Overviewa) Doesn’t use electron transport chain, unlike anaerobic respirationb) Uses glycolysis to form NAD+ and generate 2ATP2) Types of fermentationa) Alcohol fermentationi) Pyruvate becomes ethanolb) Lactic acid fermentationi) Pyruvate becomes lactate3) Comparing Fermentation and Respirationa) Oxidizing NADH back to NAD+i) Fermentation- Organic molecule as final electron acceptorii) Aerobic respiration- Oxygen as final electron acceptoriii) Anaerobic respiration- Electronegative molecule as final electron acceptorb) Obligate anaerobesi) Cannot survive in presence of oxygenc) Facultative anaerobesi) Can make ATP by fermentation or respirationF. Connections Between Metabolic Pathways1) Versatility of Catabolisma) Carbohydrates may be hydrolyzed to glucoseb) Proteins must first be digested into amino acidsc) Beta oxidationi) Breakdown of fatty acids for acetyl CoA2) Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways)a) Consume, not produce, ATPb) Glycolysis and citric acid cycle intermediates used to make essential molecules3) Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanismsa) Feedback inhibitioni) End product of anabolic pathway inhibits enzyme in earlier stepb) Phosphofructokinasei) Enzyme that catalyzes irreversible step of substrate initiation of pathwayii) Inhibited by ATPGlycolysis Pyruvate Processing Citric Acid Cycle (per glucose) TotalATP +2 0 +2 +4NADH +2 +2 +6 +10FADH20 0 +2 +2CO20 +2 +4 +6II. Animal Form and FunctionA. Form and Function at All Levels of Organization1) Evolution of Animal Shape and Sizea) Body shapei) Fast aquatic animals have fusiform body shapesb) Maximum sizei) Thicker skeletons required for larger body size2) Exchange with the Environmenta) Interstitial fluidi) Fluid between cellsb) Advantages of complex body plani) External skeletonii) Sensory organsiii) Digestive organs – controlled release of stored energy3) Hierarchical Organization of Body Plansa) Epithelial Tissuei) Covers outside of body and lines cavitiesii) Protects against pathogens, fluid loss, injuryiii) Stratified squamous epithelium- Multilayered, fast regeneration- Outer skin, oral, vaginal, anal liningiv) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium- Single layer of cells of arious heights- Ciliated cells that form mucous membrane- Respiratory liningv) Simple squamous epithelium- Single layer of disc-like cells- Lines blood vessels and lung air sacsvi) Simple columnar epithelium- Long, rectangular cells- Intestinal liningvii)Cuboidal epithelium- Cubic cells that form tubes- Kidney tubules and salivary glandsb) Connective Tissuei) Fibroblasts- Secrete fiber proteinsii) Macrophages- Engulf foreign particles and cell debrisiii) Kinds of connective tissue- Collagenous fibers Strong and flexible- Reticular fibers Join connective tissue to adjacent tissue- Elastic fibersiv) Loos connective tissue- Binds epithelia to other tissuesv) Fibrous connective tissue- Collagenous fibers-
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