Cognitive psych pysch that focuses on the higher mental processes COGNITION AND LANGUAGE Thinking and Reasoning Thinking brain activity which we purposefully manipulate mental representations of info Mental representations word visual image sound or data in other sensory modality stored in memory Thinking transforms particular representation of info into new and diff forms make decisions etc Mental Images representations in the mind of an object or event They aren t just visual representations our ability to hear a tune in our head relies on mental image Research found that mental images have many of the properties of the actual stimuli they represent Mental imagery may improve other types of skills Carrying out the task involved the same network of brain cells as the network used in mentally rehearsing it Concepts mental groupings of similar objects events or ppl Concepts enable us to organize complex phenomena into simpler and therefore more easily usable cognitive theories They help us classify newly encountered objects on the basis of our past experiences They influence behavior When we consider the more ambiguous concepts we usually think in terms or examples called prototypes Reasoning process by which info is used to draw conclusions and make decisions Syllogistic reasoning a kind of formal reasoning in which a person draws a conclusion from a set of assumptions We begin with a general assumption that we believe is true and then derive specific implications from that assumption Algorithms and Heuristics Algorithms Rule that guarantees a solution to a problem No algorithm is available for many problems and decisions Heuristic a thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision but unlike algorithms may sometimes lead to errors Heuristics increase likelihood of success in coming to a solution though cannot ensure it Representative heuristic rule we apply when we judge ppl by the degree to which they represent a certain category or group of ppl Availability heuristic Judging probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory Problem Solving Computers and Problem solving Problem solving includes preparing to create solutions producing solutions evaluating the solutions that have been generated Preparation Problems vary from well defined to ill defined Well defined both the nature of the problem itself and the info needed to solve it are available and clear Ill defined not only may the specific nature of the problem be unclear the info required to solve the problem may be even less obvious Preparation to Production to Judgment Production the difficulty with trial and error is that some problems are so complicated that it would take a lifetime to try out every possibility Means end analysis involves repeated tests for diffs between desired outcome and what currently exists Insight a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another Impediments functional fixedness tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use Mental set tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist Confirmation bias tendency to seek out and weigh more heavily info that supports one s initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory info that supports alternative hypotheses Creativity and Problem Solving creativity ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways Highly creative ppl show divergent thinking thinking that generates unusual yet nonetheless appropriate responses to problems or questions Convergent thinking thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic Another aspect of creativity is its cognitive complexity or preference for elaboration Factor not closely related to creativity is intelligence Traditional intelligence tests tap convergent thinking skills Language communication of info through symbols arranged according to systematic rules is central cognitive ability that is indispensable for us to communicate with others Grammar system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed Phonology study of phonemes Phonemes smallest basic unit of speech that affect meaning and of the way we use those sounds to form words and produce meaning Syntax ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences 800 diff phonemes among all world languages English uses 52 others use from 15 141 Semantics the meanings of words and sentences Semantic rules allow us to use words to convey the subtle nuances in meaning Language Language Development Babbling meaningless speech like sounds made by children from age of 3mths to 1 yr old Telegraphic speech sentences that sound as if they were part of a telegram in which words not critical to the message are left out Overgeneralization phenomenon by which children apply language rules eve when application results in an error Learning theory approach theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning Linguist Noam Chomsky argued that humans are born with an innate linguistic capability that emerges primarily as a function of maturation Nativist approach to language all the world s languages share a common underlying structure that is pre wired biologically determined and universal Chomsky suggested that the human brain inherited neural system that lets us understand the structure language provides Interactionist approach to language the view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language Influence of Language on Thinking Linguistic relativity hypothesis the notion that language shapes and in fact may determine the way ppl in a specific culture perceive and understand the world Do animals use language Chimp Washoe learned to make 132 signs after 4 yrs Kanzy a pygmy have linguistic skills close to a 2 yr old human MOTIVATION AND EMOTION Explaining Motivation Motivation the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms Has biological cognitive and social aspects Instinct Approaches Instincts inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned Instinct approaches to motivation ppl animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival McDouggall suggested
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