Consciousness – the awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given momentStage one sleep – the state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves; alpha waves; jerky movement.Stage two sleep - a sleep deeper than that of stage one, characterized by a slower more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of “sleep spindles”, sharply pointed spiky waves; thetha waves; less easily aroused.Stage three sleep – a sleep characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage two sleep; delta waves; more difficult to arouse.Stage four sleep – the deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation (as sleep becomes deeper, brain waves take on a slower wave pattern); delta waves least responsive to environment somnambulismRapid eye movement (REM) sleep – sleep occupying 20% of an adult’s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming they are the most vivid and easily remembered; increases with exertion; skeletal muscle paralysis; deprivation of REM sleep produces REM rebound – similar to sleep depreivation.Unconscious wish fulfillment theory – Sigmund Freud’s theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled; dreams contain universal symbols; criticismsLatent content of dreams – according to Freud, the “disguised” meanings of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjectsManifest content of dreams – according to Freud, the apparent story line of dreamsDreams-for-survival theory – the theory suggesting that dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep; possibly an artifact from a time when people had limited brainpower Activation-synthesis theory – Hobson’s theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain; how people turn into other people = miss firing neurons; present or recent fears, emotions or concernsCircadian rhythms – biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycleDaydreams – fantasies that people construct while awakeHypnosis – a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of othersMeditation – a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousnessPsychoactive drugs – drugs that influence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior.Addictive drugs – drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that,in some cases, may be nearly irresistible.Stimulants – drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension.Depressant – drugs that slow down the nervous systemNarcotics – drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxietyHallucinogen – a drug that is capable of producing hallucinations, or changes in the perceptual processLearning – a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experienceClassical conditioning – a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally bringsabout that responseNeutral stimulus – a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interestUnconditioned stimulus – a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learnedUnconditioned response – a response that is natural and needs no trainingConditioned stimulus – a once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulusConditioned response – a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulusExtinction – a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappearsSpontaneous recovery – the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioningStimulus generalization – a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same responseStimulus discrimination – the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuliOperant conditioning – learning in which a voluntary response is strengthen or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequencesReinforcement – the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeatedReinforcer – any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur againPositive reinforcer – a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding responseNegative reinforcer – an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the futurePunishment – a stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur againSchedules of reinforcement – different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behaviorContinuous reinforcement schedule – reinforcing a behavior every time it occursPartial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule – reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the timeFixed-ratio schedule – a schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are madeVariable-ration schedule – a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed numberFixed-interval schedule – a schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively lowEngram – the term for the physical memory trace that corresponds to a memoryVariable-interval schedule – a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixedShaping – the process of teaching a complex
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