Stage one sleep – the state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves; alpha waves; jerky movement. Stage two sleep - a sleep deeper than that of stage one, characterized by a slower more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of “sleep spindles”, sharply pointed spiky waves; thetha waves; less easily aroused. Stage three sleep – a sleep characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage two sleep; delta waves; more difficult to arouse. Stage four sleep – the deepest stage of sleep, during which weare least responsive to outside stimulation (as sleep becomes deeper, brain waves take on a slower wave pattern); delta waves least responsive to environment somnambulism. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep – sleep occupying 20% of an adult’s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming they are the most vivid and easily remembered; increases with exertion; skeletal muscle paralysis; deprivation of REM sleep produces REM rebound – similar to sleep depreivation. Unconscious wish fulfillment theory – Sigmund Freud’s theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled; dreams contain universal symbols; criticisms. Latent content of dreams – according toFreud, the “disguised” meanings of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjects. Manifest content of dreams – according to Freud, the apparent story line of dreams. Dreams-for-survival theory – the theory suggesting that dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep; possibly an artifact from a time when people had limited brainpower. Activation-synthesis theory – Hobson’s theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain; how people turn into other people = miss firing neurons; present or recent fears, emotions or concerns. Circadian rhythms – biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle. Daydreams – fantasies that people construct while awake. Hypnosis – a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others. Meditation – a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. Psychoactive drugs – drugs that influence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior. Addictive drugs – drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible. Stimulants – drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, bloodpressure, and muscular tension. Depressant – drugs that slow down the nervous system. Narcotics – drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety. Hallucinogen – a drug that is capable of producing hallucinations, or changes in the perceptual process. Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience. Classical conditioning – a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response. Neutral stimulus – a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest. Unconditioned stimulus – a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. Unconditioned response – a response that is natural and needs no training. Conditioned stimulus – a once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response – a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulusExtinction – a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. Spontaneousrecovery – the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. Stimulus generalization – a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response. Stimulus discrimination – the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli .Operant conditioning – learning in which a voluntary response is strengthen or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. Reinforcement – the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. Reinforcer – any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again. Positive reinforcer – a stimulus added to the environment thatbrings about an increase in a preceding response. Negative reinforcer – an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future. Punishment – a stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again. Schedules of reinforcement – different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior. Continuous reinforcement schedule – reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule – reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time. Fixed-ratio schedule – a schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. Variable-ration schedule – a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number. Fixed-interval schedule – a schedule that provides reinforcement for a response onlyif a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low. Engram – the term for the physical memory trace that corresponds to a memory. Variable-interval schedule – a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. Shaping – the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and
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