Stage one sleep the state of transition between wakefulness and sleep characterized by relatively rapid low amplitude brain waves alpha waves jerky movement Stage two sleep a sleep deeper than that of stage one characterized by a slower more regular wave pattern along with momentary interruptions of sleep spindles sharply pointed spiky waves thetha waves less easily aroused Stage three sleep a sleep characterized by slow brain waves with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage two sleep delta waves more difficult to arouse Stage four sleep the deepest stage of sleep during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation as sleep becomes deeper brain waves take on a slower wave pattern delta waves least responsive to environment somnambulism Rapid eye movement REM sleep sleep occupying 20 of an adult s sleeping time characterized by increased heart rate blood pressure and breathing rate erections eye movements and the experience of dreaming they are the most vivid and easily remembered increases with exertion skeletal muscle paralysis deprivation of REM sleep produces REM rebound similar to sleep depreivation Unconscious wish fulfillment theory Sigmund Freud s theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled dreams contain universal symbols criticisms Latent content of dreams according to Freud the disguised meanings of dreams hidden by more obvious subjects Manifest content of dreams according to Freud the apparent story line of dreams Dreams for survival theory the theory suggesting that dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep possibly an artifact from a time when people had limited brainpower Activation synthesis theory Hobson s theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain how people turn into other people miss firing neurons present or recent fears emotions or concerns Circadian rhythms biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24 hour cycle Daydreams fantasies that people construct while awake Hypnosis a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others Meditation a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness Psychoactive drugs drugs that influence a person s emotions perceptions and behavior Addictive drugs drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that in some cases may be nearly irresistible Stimulants drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system causing a rise in heart rate blood pressure and muscular tension Depressant drugs that slow down the nervous system Narcotics drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety Hallucinogen a drug that is capable of producing hallucinations or changes in the perceptual process Learning a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience Classical conditioning a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response Neutral stimulus a stimulus that before conditioning does not naturally bring about the response of interest Unconditioned stimulus a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned Unconditioned response a response that is natural and needs no training Conditioned stimulus a once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned response a response that after conditioning follows a previously neutral stimulus Extinction a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears Spontaneous recovery the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning Stimulus generalization a process in which after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response Stimulus discrimination the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not the ability to differentiate between stimuli Operant conditioning learning in which a voluntary response is strengthen or weakened depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences Reinforcement the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated Reinforcer any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again Positive reinforcer a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response Negative reinforcer an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future Punishment a stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again Schedules of reinforcement different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior Continuous reinforcement schedule reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs Partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time Fixed ratio schedule a schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made Variable ration schedule a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number Fixed interval schedule a schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed making overall rates of response relatively low Engram the term for the physical memory trace that corresponds to a memory Variable interval schedule a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed Shaping the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer to the approximations of the desired behavior Behavior modification a formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones Cognitive learning an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie
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