Theory!Hypothesis (Ho)-something that can be tested and falsified !•Independent Variable- cause. is the one that is manipulated. !◦Dependent Variable- effect!◦Null (H1) no difference !•Research!•!Theory Testing!Theory testing involved developing hypothesis based on the theory's •predictions!If the predictions are validated by observation, the theory gains greater •acceptability !Hypothesis are tested using research methods-standardized, systematic •procedures!!Categories of Theory!Explanations of criminal behavior fall into eight general categories !•Classical-deterrence theory (preventing criminal behavior to some degree)!◦Biological- neurological deficients!◦Psychobiological !◦Psychological !◦Sociological !◦Social Process!◦Conflict!◦Emergent!◦!Characteristics of Classical and Neoclassical Theories !Basic Assumptions!•Crime is caused by the individual exercise of "free will"!1.Pain and pleasure are two central determinants of human behavior !2.Punishment is sometimes required to deter law violators !3.Crime prevention is possible through swift and certain punishment, which 4.offsets any gains to be had through criminal behavior !!Cesare Beccaria: Crime and Punishment !In 1784, Beccaria published Essays on crime and Punishment. Beccaria:!•was considered controversial at the time!◦is referred to as the founder of the classical school of criminology!◦felt punishments should be more humanitarian!◦called for the end of physical punishment and the death penalty!◦believed that punishment should fit the crime and not be excessive !◦!Jeremy Bentham's Hedonistic Calculus !Concept developed by Bentham (1748-1832)!•The exercise of free would cause an individual to avoid committing a crime as •long as the punishment outweighed the benefits!Bentham called this philosophy Utilitarianism !•Agreed with Beccaria that punishment should be "swift and certain-as well as •just-to be effective"!!Social Policy and Classical Theories !Classical theories form the basis of many criminal justice programs!•High crime rates call for punishment to get even and to prevent future crime!•!Characteristics of Biological Theories !Basic Assumptions !•Human Behavior is constitutionally or genetically determined !1.Basic determinants of human behavior may be passed from generation to 2.generation ! Some behavior is the result of propensities inherited from more primitive 3.developmental stages in the evolutionary process !!Social Policy and Biological Theories !Policies based on biological theories are usually considered "extreme"!•Ex: Eugenics movement of the 1920's!•people are undeveloped or mal-developed !◦!Characteristics of Physcobiological Theories !Focus is on the relationship of the following to criminal behavior:!•DNA!1.environmental contaminants!2.how environment effects DNA!A.3. nutrition ! A. those in lower income neighborhoods preform lower than those in high income neighborhoods!4. Hormones !5. Physical Trauma!6. Body chemistry in human cognition and behavior!!Biochemical Factors and Imbalances!Biocriminology attempts to link violent or disruptive behavior to eating habits, •vitamin deficiencies, genetics, and other conditions which impact body tissues !example: some studies have linked crime to:!◦Hypoglycemia !‣allergic reactions to food !‣high levels of caffeine and sugar !‣testosterone levels !‣!Hereditary and other physical factors!Adoption and twin studies have shown!•children adopted at birth have shown a tendency toward criminality of ◦biological parents !identical twins separated at birth indicate that they exhibit a greater ◦similarity in terms of criminality than do fraternal twins !Wilson and Herrnstein (1985) argue that inherited traits combine with ‣environmental factors to produce crime !!Characteristics of Sociological Theories !Social groups, social institutions, the arrangement of society, and social roles 1.are all appropriate for study!Group dynamics, group organization, and subgroup relationships form the 2.casual basis of criminality!the structure of society and the relative degree of social organization or social 3.disorganization are important factors contributing to criminal behavior !Particular sociological theories may give greater or lesser weight to:!•the clash of norms and values among variously socialized groups !◦socialization and the process of association between individuals !◦the existence of subcultures and varying types of opportunities !◦!Social Ecology Theory!In the 1920s, Park and Burgess mapped Chicago based on the city's social •characteristics !They developed the Concentric Zone Theory !•concentric zones are likened to a bull's eye with the center of the city being ◦the target !Shaw and McKay related this theory to crime!•crime increased as one moved towards center of the city, with the highest ◦crime rates in the "zone of transition", where there was a lot of poverty, illiteracy, lack of schooling, unemployment, and illegitimacy (social disorganization)!!Anomie Theory !Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) introduced the term anomie (normlessness) in •the late 1800s!Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) defined anomie as a disjuncture between •societal goals and legitimate means.!he developed a typology of adaptations !◦Conformist- accept goals and means (law abiding)!•Innovator-accepts goals, rejects means (property/white collar offenses) !•crimes of the suites!◦Retreatest- rejects both goals and means (addiction/victimless crimes) !•Ritualist- rejects goals, accepts means (repetitive/mundane, lifestyles)!•they like hard work, they accept the fact that they'll only make enough to ◦get by!Rebel- rejects goals and means and substitutes his own goals and means •(political crime)!maintain their own power!◦!Subcultural Theory!Cohen (b. 1918)- reaction formation, lower class youth's rejection of middle •class values, leads to the development of gangs and reinforces the subculture!Miller- Lower class priority concerns of trouble, toughness, excitement, •smartness, fate and autonomy lead to crime. !Cloward and Ohlin proposed that an illegitimate opportunity structure allows •delinquent youths to achieve success outside of legitimate ways. !Wolfgang and Ferracuti coined that term "subculture of violence" after •examining homicide rates in Philadelphia in the 1950s !here, violence is a traditional, and often accepted, method of dispute
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