Independent Variable cause is the one that is manipulated Dependent Variable effect Hypothesis Ho something that can be tested and falsi ed Null H1 no difference Research Theory Theory Testing Theory testing involved developing hypothesis based on the theory s predictions If the predictions are validated by observation the theory gains greater acceptability Hypothesis are tested using research methods standardized systematic procedures Categories of Theory Explanations of criminal behavior fall into eight general categories Classical deterrence theory preventing criminal behavior to some degree Biological neurological de cients Psychobiological Psychological Sociological Social Process Con ict Emergent Characteristics of Classical and Neoclassical Theories 1 2 3 4 Basic Assumptions Crime is caused by the individual exercise of free will Pain and pleasure are two central determinants of human behavior Punishment is sometimes required to deter law violators Crime prevention is possible through swift and certain punishment which offsets any gains to be had through criminal behavior Cesare Beccaria Crime and Punishment In 1784 Beccaria published Essays on crime and Punishment Beccaria was considered controversial at the time is referred to as the founder of the classical school of criminology felt punishments should be more humanitarian called for the end of physical punishment and the death penalty believed that punishment should t the crime and not be excessive Jeremy Bentham s Hedonistic Calculus Concept developed by Bentham 1748 1832 The exercise of free would cause an individual to avoid committing a crime as long as the punishment outweighed the bene ts Bentham called this philosophy Utilitarianism Agreed with Beccaria that punishment should be swift and certain as well as just to be effective Classical theories form the basis of many criminal justice programs High crime rates call for punishment to get even and to prevent future crime Social Policy and Classical Theories Characteristics of Biological Theories 1 2 Basic Assumptions Human Behavior is constitutionally or genetically determined Basic determinants of human behavior may be passed from generation to generation Some behavior is the result of propensities inherited from more primitive developmental stages in the evolutionary process 3 Social Policy and Biological Theories Policies based on biological theories are usually considered extreme Ex Eugenics movement of the 1920 s people are undeveloped or mal developed Characteristics of Physcobiological Theories 1 2 Focus is on the relationship of the following to criminal behavior DNA environmental contaminants A how environment effects DNA 3 nutrition A those in lower income neighborhoods preform lower than those in high income neighborhoods 4 Hormones 5 Physical Trauma 6 Body chemistry in human cognition and behavior Biochemical Factors and Imbalances Biocriminology attempts to link violent or disruptive behavior to eating habits vitamin de ciencies genetics and other conditions which impact body tissues example some studies have linked crime to Hypoglycemia allergic reactions to food high levels of caffeine and sugar testosterone levels Hereditary and other physical factors Adoption and twin studies have shown children adopted at birth have shown a tendency toward criminality of biological parents identical twins separated at birth indicate that they exhibit a greater similarity in terms of criminality than do fraternal twins Wilson and Herrnstein 1985 argue that inherited traits combine with environmental factors to produce crime Characteristics of Sociological Theories 1 2 3 Social groups social institutions the arrangement of society and social roles are all appropriate for study Group dynamics group organization and subgroup relationships form the casual basis of criminality the structure of society and the relative degree of social organization or social disorganization are important factors contributing to criminal behavior Particular sociological theories may give greater or lesser weight to the clash of norms and values among variously socialized groups socialization and the process of association between individuals the existence of subcultures and varying types of opportunities Social Ecology Theory In the 1920s Park and Burgess mapped Chicago based on the city s social characteristics They developed the Concentric Zone Theory concentric zones are likened to a bull s eye with the center of the city being the target Shaw and McKay related this theory to crime crime increased as one moved towards center of the city with the highest crime rates in the zone of transition where there was a lot of poverty illiteracy lack of schooling unemployment and illegitimacy social disorganization Anomie Theory he developed a typology of adaptations Emile Durkheim 1858 1917 introduced the term anomie normlessness in the late 1800s Robert K Merton 1910 2003 de ned anomie as a disjuncture between societal goals and legitimate means Conformist accept goals and means law abiding Innovator accepts goals rejects means property white collar offenses Retreatest rejects both goals and means addiction victimless crimes Ritualist rejects goals accepts means repetitive mundane lifestyles they like hard work they accept the fact that they ll only make enough to get by crimes of the suites Rebel rejects goals and means and substitutes his own goals and means political crime maintain their own power Subcultural Theory Cohen b 1918 reaction formation lower class youth s rejection of middle class values leads to the development of gangs and reinforces the subculture Miller Lower class priority concerns of trouble toughness excitement smartness fate and autonomy lead to crime Cloward and Ohlin proposed that an illegitimate opportunity structure allows delinquent youths to achieve success outside of legitimate ways Wolfgang and Ferracuti coined that term subculture of violence after examining homicide rates in Philadelphia in the 1950s here violence is a traditional and often accepted method of dispute resolution Characteristics of Social Process Theories Differential Association They highlight the role of social learning Often the most attractive to policymakers they are consistent with popular cultural and religious values Edwin Sutherland 1883 1950 in his third edition of Principles of Criminology 1939 viewed crime as a product of socialization crime is learned it is learned by the same
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