PSY 110 1st Edition Lecture 9 Outline of Last Lecture I. What is Memory?II. Systems of MemoryIII. Measuring RetrievalIV. Influences on RetrievalV. Remembering as ReconstructionVI. Influences on Reconstructive MemoryOutline of Current Lecture I. ForgettingII. Biology and MemoryIII. Hormones and MemoryIV. Memory LossV. Memory in Legal and Therapeutic SettingsCurrent Lecture ForgettingForgetting: the inability to bring to mind information that was previously rememberedEbbinghaus and the Curve of Forgetting:- Conducted first experimental studies on learning and memory- Learned and relearned more than 1,200 lists of nonsense syllables to discover how rapidly forgetting occurs- Measured time it took to memorize list initially; then measure length of time to relearn material- Curve of forgettingo Forgetting tapers off after a period of rapid information loss immediately following learningo Meaningful material is forgotten more slowly, encoded more deeply- Much of forgetting occurs within the first 24 hoursThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.Why Do We Forget?:1. Encoding Failure- occurs when info was never put into long-term memory- Nickerson & Adams (1979) Studyo Few people can recognize the accurate drawing of the pennyo We remember just enough details to distinguish a penny from other coins2. Decay Theory- memories, if not used, fade with time and eventually disappear- decay does not appear in long-term memories (only sensory and short-term memories)3. Interference- Info that is similar to the info you are trying to retrieve is most hindering- Proactive interferenceo Info already stored in memory interferes with remembering newer info- Retroactive Interferenceo New learning interferes with remembering previously learned infoo Often temporary; in long-run, older info will likely outlast new info after this temporary effect is over4. Consolidation Failure- disruption in consolidation process that prevents long-term memory from forming- results from an event that disrupts process, such as a seizure, car accident, or event that causes person to lose consciousness5. Motivated Forgetting- suppression or repression in an effort to protect oneself from material that is painful, frightening, or otherwise unpleasant- Suppression- active, conscious attempt to put event out of mind- Repression- trauma, removed from consciousnesso Hypnosis and guided imagery are often used to help clients recover repressed memories of childhood sexual abuseo Critics argue that therapists sometimes implant false memories in clientso Imagining a fictitious event can lead to a false memory of the event6. Prospective Forgetting- not remembering to carry out some intended action- most likely to forget action perceived as unpleasant or unimportant7. Retrieval Failure- not remembering something on is certain of knowing- tip-of the-tongue (TOT) phenomenono knowing info has been learned but being unable to retrieve ito to overcome, divert attention and return to task later Biology and MemoryHippocampus- Plays important role in forming episodic memories- Formation of semantic memories involves hippocampus and parts of hippocampal region- Involved in navigational skillso Taxi drivers have larger posterior hippocampal regions than general population- HM – patient with epilepsy who had portions of temporal lobes removed including amygdala and hippocampuso After surgery could not use working memory to put info into LTMo Could still learn skillsLong-Term Potentiation (LTP): increase in the efficiency of neural transmission at the synapse that lasts for hours or longer- Does not take place unless both sending and receiving neurons are activated at same time- Blocking LTP interferes with learning  long term memories not formed Hormones and Memory**our strongest and most lasting memories are usually fueled by emotion- epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) activate the amygdala- help imprint powerful, enduring memories for threatening events- “fight-or-flight” response- this widespread brain activation is related to vividness of flashbulb memories**excessive levels of cortisol can interfere with memories- high levels of cortisol  poorer performance on memory test- moderate levels relate to enhanced memory**estrogen appears to improve working memory efficiency in pre-menopausal women- post-menopausal estrogen replacement may increase risk of dementia- more research concerning treatment of age-related memory loss is needed Memory LossAmnesia: partial or complete loss of memory- Due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or some psychological causeAnterograde Amnesia: inability to form new long-term memories- Case of HM- Older memories and STM not affectedRetrograde Amnesia: loss of memory for experiences that occurred shortly before a loss of consciousness- Can form new memories but cannot remember events during specific time period in the past- Episodic memories affectedDementia: mental deterioration characterized by impaired memory and intellect- Altered personality and behavior- Individuals with dementia can lose episodic and semantic memories- May have trouble forming new memoriesAlzheimer’s Disease: form of dementia caused by degeneration of brain cells- High IQ plus lifelong intellectual activity may delay or lessen Alzheimer’s symptomsInfantile Amnesia: relative inability of older children and adults to recall events from first few years of life- Hippocampus in brain not fully developed Memory in Legal and Therapeutic Settings**Human memory is reconstructive- eyewitness testimony is highly subject to error- should always be viewed with caution**physiological stress of being a crime victim creates memory gaps- memory distortions or false memories may fill in these gapsMisinformation Effect: erroneous recollections of witnessed events- Results from info learned after the factFactors Affecting Testimony Reliability:- Viewing a photograph of a suspect before seeing a lineup- Viewing members of lineup all at same time, rather than one at a time- Leading questions used- Exposure to other