PSY 110 1st Edition Lecture 8 Outline of Last Lecture I. PunishmentII. Escape and Avoidance LearningIII. Cognitive LearningIV. Observational LearningV. Learning From MediaOutline of Current Lecture I. What is Memory?II. Systems of MemoryIII. Measuring RetrievalIV. Influences on RetrievalV. Remembering as ReconstructionVI. Influences on Reconstructive MemoryCurrent Lecture What is Memory?Information-Processing Theory: Compares human brain/memory to that of a computer- Makes use of modern computer science and related fieldso Hardware = memoryo Software = learned memory strategies- Provides models that help psychologists understand the processes involved in memory- Memory involves 3 distinct processes:o Encoding: transforming info into a form that can be stored into memoryo Storage: maintaining info in memoryo Retrieval: bringing stored material to mind Encoding  Storage  Retrieval Systems of MemoryThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.Sensory Memory: Briefly holds info from the senses- Visual Info: for a fraction of a second- Auditory Info: up to 2 seconds- Takes in an enormous amount of info, but holds it very briefly- Eidetic Imagery:o Ability to retain image in sensory memory for extended periodo Comes closest to being “photographic memory”o More common in childrenShort-Term Memory (STM): Subsystem of memory we use when we try to understand information, remember it, and/or use it to solve a problem- Seven (plus or minus 2) items for less than 30 secondsEX) phone numbers- Also called working memory- Acts as workspace for carrying out mental activity- Unless rehearsed, memories lost in less than 30 seconds- Displacement: new incoming item pushes out an existing itemo Occurs when STM is fullo Analogy of desk getting cluttered- Chunking: grouping bit of info into larger unitso Way to “cheat” STMEX) acronyms, social security #- Mnemonic Devices: memory technique to help your brain better encode and recall important infoo Simple shortcut that helps us associate info we want to remember with an image/sentence/wordo Acronyms: ROY G BIV (colors of the rainbow)o Rhymes: “Thirty days has November, April June and November…”- Overlearning: practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeatedonce without error- Rehearsal: repeating info to maintain it in STMo Maintenance rehearsal- repeating information until stored in LTM “shallow” processing encoding based on superficial features of infoEX) sound of a wordo Elaborative rehearsal- linking new info to that already known “deep” processing encoding based on meaning of info helps learner make associations with existing knowledge- Craik and Lockhart (1972)o Hypothesized that deep processing is more likely to lead to long-term retention than shallow processingo Retention tests showed that the deeper level of processing, the higher the accuracy of memory- Automaticity: ability to recall info from long-term memory without efforto Allows working memory to be freed up for other tasksEX) memorizing multiplication factsLong-Term Memory: Storehouse of relatively permanent memories that can last for up to a lifetime- Also called implicit memory or procedural memory- Virtually unlimited capacity- Info is usually stored semantically (by meaning), but can also include smells, images, andsounds- Main subsystems of LTM:o Declarative memory: stores facts, info, personal life events “knowing what” can be brought to mind verbally or in form of images Episodic Memory: records events as they have been subjectively experienced; “episodes of your life” Semantic Memory: stores general knowledge or objective facts and info; “encyclopedia”o Non-declarative memory: stores motor skills, habits, and simple classically conditioned responses Can be carried out with little conscious effort after memories are formed**Strangers are more likely to have similarities in semantic memories than in episodic memories Measuring RetrievalRecall: Task in which a person must produce required info by searching memoryEX) remembering someone’s name or a short answer question on a testRetrieval Cue: Any stimulus or bit of info that aids in retrieving particular info from long-term memoryEX) giving first letter of an answer on a test questionRecognition: Identify material as familiar or as having been encountered beforeEX) multiple choice testRelearning Method: Measure of memory where retention is expressed as percentage of time saved when material is relearned compared with time required to learn material originally- Can measure remnants of past learningEX) studying for a cumulative exam Influences on RetrievalSerial Position Effect: For info learned in a sequence, recall is better for items at beginning and end than for items in middle of sequence- Primacy Effect: tendency to recall first items in a sequence more easily than the middle items- Recency Effect: tendency to recall last items in a sequence more easily that middle itemsContext Effect: We recall material more easily in same environment which it was learned- Aspects of physical environment may act as retrieval cues- Godden and Baddeley (1975)o Participants memorized words underwater or on lando Words learned underwater  best recalled underwatero Words learned on land  best recalled on landState-Dependent Memory Effect: Tendency to recall info better if one is in the same pharmacological or psychological state as one was when the info was encoded- Effect appears to be greater for episodic than for semantic memories- Stronger when positive emotions involved Remembering as ReconstructionReconstruction: An account of an event that has been pieced together from a few highlights- Use reference points or fragmentary info to reconstruct a memory- Sir Frederick Bartlett (1886-1969)o Reconstructive memory processes employ schemaso Schemas: frameworks of knowledge we have about people, objects, and eventso Schema-based processing is even more evident when processing more complex infoo Using schemas to reconstruct memories can lead to inaccuraciesSource Memory: A recollection of circumstances in which memory was formed- Most memories do not include sources- Source monitoring: practice of intentionally keeping track of sources of incoming infoo Necessary for