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Functional Groups Chapter 2 and 3: Bonds: Covalent: Sharing of electronsIonic: Electron stripping(In order from strongest to weakest)1. Non-Polar Covalent: equal sharing of electrons (ex=2 Oxygen molecule/no molecules with the same electronegativity)2. Polar Covalent: Unequal sharing of electrons (water molecules)3. Ionic: Electron stripping to fill outer electron shell (ex=2 non-metals4. Hydrogen Bonds: partial + partial -, with Hydrogen atom creating the partialpositive -partial positive charge on a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to an electronegative atom allows the hydrogen to be attracted to a diff electronegative atom nearby. This noncovalent attraction btwn hydrogenand an electronegative atom is called a hydrogen bond (usually hydrogen with oxygen and nitrogen)Chemical Reactions: Reactivity/shape determined by Valence electronsProperties of water: -Hydrogen bonding: -Cohesion (water molecules stick together, leads to more important things)/Adhesion (water sticks to other things, water can be easily moved)-Surface Tension (measure of how difficult it is to break surface of liquid)(why things can walk on water/why lipids repels water)-High specific heat (amount of energy needed to convert water to gas, water can absorb a lot of energy before it is converted to a gas/releases a lot of heat when it is released as a gas)/heat of vaporization (Takes a lot of energy to break hydrogen bonds, related to sweating)-Evaporative Cooling: hottest molecules on top leave as gas and the remaining liquid on surface cools down -Less dense as a solid: expansion of molecules when cooled b/c they move too slowly to break hydrogen bonds-Water is POLAR-pH (acids and bases) Water can change its polarity by interfering with hydrogen bondsChapter 4: Chemistry with Carbon-Carbon=backbone of organic molecules because of its shape which makes it diverse(has 4 valence electrons/acts as intersection point from which molecule can branch off in 4 different directions)Isomers: Structural variations of molecules-Structural isomers: Differ in covalent arrangements/partners around backbone-Geometric isomers: Differ in arrangements of side groups/carbons have covalent bonds to same atoms, but these atoms differ in spatial arrangements (Cis/Trans)-Enantiomers: mirror images of each (Differ in spatial arrangements around asymmetric carbon)Chapter 5: MacromoleculesMonomers: Smaller molecules that are building blocks of polymers Polymers: Large molecule consisting of many building blocks linked by covalent bondsDehydration Synthesis: Loss of water molecule linking two monomers togetherHydrolysis: Addition of a water molecule in order to break bonds/break polymer into 2(4 Different Types): 1. Carbohydrates (Sugars)Used for: Fuel/Storage, Make lipids/proteins, Structural elementsMonomers=MonosaccharaidesPolymers=Polysaccharides (ex=starch/glycogen/cellulose/chitin)Linked by Glycosidic Linkages: Alpha: unbranched or branched/helical/same orientation/digestible. Beta: Never branched/linear/upside down in respect to neighbor2. Nucleic Acids: (Information Storage molecules)Monomers= NucleotidesPolymers=PolynucleotidesLinked by Phosphodiester LinkageDNA/RNA (Differ in sugar backbone either deoxyribose or ribose which onlydiffer in their –OH group)Purines: A/G (2 rings)Pyrimidines: T/C (1 ring)A-T (2 hydrogen bonds)C-G (3 hydrogen bonds)3. Proteins: Enzymes/structure/storage/transport/signaling/defenseMonomers: Amino Acids (20 of them/differ in functional R groups)Polymers: PolypeptidesLinked by Peptide BondsStructure: Primary: Amino Acid SequenceSecondary: Hydrogen Bonds in polypeptide Backbone (Beta pleated sheet) (Alpha helix)Tertiary: DETERMINES SHAPE!!! Interactions btwn R-groups/Disulfide bridges S-S/All kinds of bondsQuaternary: Interactions btwn multiple polypeptide chainsDenaturation: Change in pH/temp=protein falls apart and unravels/unfolds/looses its shape/properties which in turn makes it so it can’t continue its function4. Lipids: Large/non-polar/insolubleInclude: Fats/oils(storage)/Phospholipid (cell membranes)/Steroids (signaling molecules) (ex=cholesterol -> molecule from which all other steroids are synthesized)Monomers: Glycerol+ 3 Fatty acids=TriglyceridePolymers: Not true polymersLinked by ester linkagesOils: Unsaturated/Double bonds/fewer H atoms (liquid at room temp b/c they have double bonds which prevent molecules from packing closely together in order to solidify at room temp)Fats: Saturated/No double bonds (solid at room temp b/c they lack double bonds making it possible to pack tightly together and remain solid at room temp)Phospholipids: (Amphipathic=likes/hates water)Hydrophobic tails ->> form bilayers to shield tailsHydrophilic HeadsChapter 6: The cell Structure/Function5 Common features of all cells: 1. Plasma membrane2. Cytoplasm3. DNA4. RNA5. RibosomesAnimal Cells: Flagella/Centrioles/Lysosomes (Breaks down substances)Plant Cells: Central vacuole (Digestion/storage/water balance)/plasmodesmata (Cytoplasmic channel through cell walls)/cell wall/chloroplasts (Converts light energy to chemical energy)Endomembrane System (Only in Eukaryotes): interconnected membranous organelles connected by either physical continuity/by transfer of membrane segments as vesicles1. Nuclear Envelope2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth=lipid synthesis) (Rough=Synthesis of intermembrane proteins/phospholipids/assembly of new membranes)3. Golgi (warehouse for receiving/sorting/manufacturing/shipping) (Adds ZIP cods to molecules)4. Vesicles (small compartments/sacs of membranes used for transport btwn organelles)/vacuoules+endosomes (endosomes=selective/contain enzymes) (membranous compartments used for storage)Organelles NOT part of endomembrane system/can function on their own: 1. Mitochondria (cellular respiration/generates ATP)2. Ribosomes (Protein synthesis)3. Peroxisomes (Mediates breakdown of molecules)Cytoskeleton: 1. Microtubules: (Tubulin) Cell division/Flagella/Cilia (Keep in mind centrosomes make microtubules)2. Microfilaments: (Actin) Muscle Contractions3. Intermediate Filaments: (Lamin/Keratin) Anchor Nucleus/organellesExtracellular Matrix: (In animal cells) fibronectin/other glycoproteins and bind to integral/membrane proteins in order to transmit signal btwn the outside cell to cytoskeleton and regulate behavior inside cellCell Junctions: 1. Tight Junctions: Plasma membranes of neighboring cells tightly pressed together forming continuous seal around cells and preventing leakage btwn


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UMD BSCI 105 - Chapter 2 and 3

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