Functional Groups Chapter 2 and 3 Bonds Covalent Sharing of electrons Ionic Electron stripping In order from strongest to weakest 1 Non Polar Covalent equal sharing of electrons ex 2 Oxygen molecule no molecules with the same electronegativity 2 Polar Covalent Unequal sharing of electrons water molecules 3 Ionic Electron stripping to fill outer electron shell ex 2 non metals 4 Hydrogen Bonds partial partial with Hydrogen atom creating the partial positive partial positive charge on a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to an electronegative atom allows the hydrogen to be attracted to a diff electronegative atom nearby This noncovalent attraction btwn hydrogen and an electronegative atom is called a hydrogen bond usually hydrogen with oxygen and nitrogen Reactivity shape determined by Valence electrons Chemical Reactions Properties of water Hydrogen bonding Cohesion water molecules stick together leads to more important things Adhesion water sticks to other things water can be easily moved Surface Tension measure of how difficult it is to break surface of liquid why things can walk on water why lipids repels water High specific heat amount of energy needed to convert water to gas water can absorb a lot of energy before it is converted to a gas releases a lot of heat when it is released as a gas heat of vaporization Takes a lot of energy to break hydrogen bonds related to sweating Evaporative Cooling hottest molecules on top leave as gas and the remaining liquid on surface cools down Less dense as a solid expansion of molecules when cooled b c they move too slowly to break hydrogen bonds Water is POLAR pH acids and bases Water can change its polarity by interfering with hydrogen bonds Chapter 4 Chemistry with Carbon Carbon backbone of organic molecules because of its shape which makes it diverse has 4 valence electrons acts as intersection point from which molecule can branch off in 4 different directions Isomers Structural variations of molecules Structural isomers Differ in covalent arrangements partners around backbone Geometric isomers Differ in arrangements of side groups carbons have covalent bonds to same atoms but these atoms differ in spatial arrangements Cis Trans Enantiomers mirror images of each Differ in spatial arrangements around asymmetric carbon Chapter 5 Macromolecules Monomers Smaller molecules that are building blocks of polymers Polymers Large molecule consisting of many building blocks linked by covalent bonds Dehydration Synthesis Loss of water molecule linking two monomers together Hydrolysis Addition of a water molecule in order to break bonds break polymer into 2 4 Different Types 1 Carbohydrates Sugars Used for Fuel Storage Make lipids proteins Structural elements Monomers Monosaccharaides Polymers Polysaccharides ex starch glycogen cellulose chitin Linked by Glycosidic Linkages Alpha unbranched or branched helical same orientation digestible Beta Never branched linear upside down in respect to neighbor 2 Nucleic Acids Information Storage molecules Monomers Nucleotides Polymers Polynucleotides Linked by Phosphodiester Linkage DNA RNA Differ in sugar backbone either deoxyribose or ribose which only differ in their OH group Purines A G 2 rings Pyrimidines T C 1 ring A T 2 hydrogen bonds C G 3 hydrogen bonds 3 Proteins Enzymes structure storage transport signaling defense Monomers Amino Acids 20 of them differ in functional R groups Polymers Polypeptides Linked by Peptide Bonds Structure Primary Amino Acid Sequence Secondary Hydrogen Bonds in polypeptide Backbone Beta pleated sheet Alpha helix Tertiary DETERMINES SHAPE Interactions btwn R groups Disulfide bridges S S All kinds of bonds Quaternary Interactions btwn multiple polypeptide chains Denaturation Change in pH temp protein falls apart and unravels unfolds looses its shape properties which in turn makes it so it can t continue its function 4 Lipids Large non polar insoluble Include Fats oils storage Phospholipid cell membranes Steroids signaling molecules ex cholesterol molecule from which all other steroids are synthesized Monomers Glycerol 3 Fatty acids Triglyceride Polymers Not true polymers Linked by ester linkages Oils Unsaturated Double bonds fewer H atoms liquid at room temp b c they have double bonds which prevent molecules from packing closely together in order to solidify at room temp Fats Saturated No double bonds solid at room temp b c they lack double bonds making it possible to pack tightly together and remain solid at room temp Phospholipids Amphipathic likes hates water Hydrophobic tails form bilayers to shield tails Hydrophilic Heads Chapter 6 The cell Structure Function 5 Common features of all cells 1 Plasma membrane 2 Cytoplasm 3 DNA 4 RNA 5 Ribosomes Animal Cells Flagella Centrioles Lysosomes Breaks down substances Plant Cells Central vacuole Digestion storage water balance plasmodesmata Cytoplasmic channel through cell walls cell wall chloroplasts Converts light energy to chemical energy Endomembrane System Only in Eukaryotes interconnected membranous organelles connected by either physical continuity by transfer of membrane segments as vesicles 1 Nuclear Envelope 2 Endoplasmic Reticulum Smooth lipid synthesis Rough Synthesis of intermembrane proteins phospholipids assembly of new membranes 3 Golgi warehouse for receiving sorting manufacturing shipping Adds ZIP cods to molecules 4 Vesicles small compartments sacs of membranes used for transport btwn organelles vacuoules endosomes endosomes selective contain enzymes membranous compartments used for storage Organelles NOT part of endomembrane system can function on their own 1 Mitochondria cellular respiration generates ATP 2 Ribosomes Protein synthesis 3 Peroxisomes Mediates breakdown of molecules Cytoskeleton 1 Microtubules Tubulin Cell division Flagella Cilia Keep in mind centrosomes make microtubules 2 Microfilaments Actin Muscle Contractions 3 Intermediate Filaments Lamin Keratin Anchor Nucleus organelles Extracellular Matrix In animal cells fibronectin other glycoproteins and bind to integral membrane proteins in order to transmit signal btwn the outside cell to cytoskeleton and regulate behavior inside cell Cell Junctions 1 Tight Junctions Plasma membranes of neighboring cells tightly pressed together forming continuous seal around cells and preventing leakage btwn cells ex intestines 2 Desmosomes anchoring junctions fibers fuse together connecting two cells ex attach muscle cells together 3 Gap Junctions Communicating
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