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SC BIOL 101 - bio 101 final notes

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Bio 101 Notes for final Chapter 9 Cellular RespirationCellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic processes but most commonly called aerobic respiration. It can occur with or without the presence of O2. Food provides fuel for respiration and CO2 and H20 are the products. The overall process can be summarized as: Organic compounds + O2  CO2 + water + energy The cell converts glucose into ATP by cellular respiration.Redox reactions: Oxidation and Reduction:- The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic molecules. The released energy is ultimately used to synthesize ATP. Oxidation and Reduction: transfer of electrons in a chemical reaction that releases energy.They’re used to synthesize ATP.Oxidation: Substances loses electron (oxidized). [Reducing agent]Reduction: Substance gains electron (The positive charge is reduced) [oxidizing agent]-During cellular respiration, the fuel (glucose) is oxidized and O2 is reduced.You can divide cellular respiration into 3 metabolic processes that each occur in a specificregion of the cell: 1. Glycolysis (in the cytosol [cytoplasm])2. Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle (in the matrix of the mitochondria)3. Oxidative Phosphorylation via ETC (in the inner mitochondrial membraneIn the absence of oxygen, respiration consists of two metabolic pathways which both are in the cytosol: 1. Glycolysis2. FermentationFormula for respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP+Heat)1. Glycolysis: “splitting of sugar”The 6-carbon sugar “glucose” is broken down into molecules of a 2-carbon molecule “pyruvate”. It can take place with or without O2. Start point: glucose + 2ATP + 4ADP + 2Pi. End point: 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ADP + 4 ATP (with a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH)Glycolysis can be divided into two phases: 1. Energy Investment Phase2. Payoff PhaseEnergy Investment Phase: - Glucose is the starting product + 2 ATP + 4 ADP + 2Pi- 2 ATP is used to break glucose (in half) into 2 phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) Energy Payoff Phase:- 2 PGAL is transformed into 2 pyruvate- Each PGAL  pyruvate produces 2 ATP (4 total) and 1 NADH (2 total)At the end of glycolysis, all the energy that was originally in glucose is now in 3 differentkinds of molecules: 2 ATP, 2 NADH and 2-pyruvate.2. Kreb’s Cycle:It’s a key components of the metabolic pathway by which all aerobic organisms generate energy. - Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and only in the presence of O2. It completes the breakdown of glucose to CO2. - It generates a pool of chemical energy (ATP, NADH, and FADH2) from the oxidation of pyruvate, which is the end product of glycolysis. In the Kreb’s Cycle, pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and loses CO2 to form acetyl-CoA. NAD+ is reduced to NADH. When acetyl-CoA is oxidized toCO2 in the cycle, chemical energy is released and captured into the form of NADH, FADH2 and ATP. In this cycle, it consumes Acetate (in the form of Acetyl CoA) and reduces NAD+ and NADH, and produces CO2. The final product at the end of thecycle is oxaloacetic acid. It is known as the citric acid cycle because citric acid is the very first product generated by the sequence of chemical conversions as well as what is regenerated at the end of the cycle. The cycle oxidizes organic fuel from pyruvate and Per acetyl-CoA that enters the cycle, it generates:- 2 NADH- 1 FADH2- 1 GTP (ATP)3. Oxidative Phosphorylation via ETC:Converts the energy from NADH and FADH2 into ATP. It accounts for most of the ATP synthesis and occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It’s powered by redox reactions. - Accounts for almost 90% of ATP generated by cellular respiration. - A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis & Kreb’s cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation. - Uses energy from NADH and FADH2 to pump hydrogen ions H+ from mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space- Then by allowing H+ to flow back into the matrix in a controlled way, ATPis synthesized- End result: roughly 38 ATP generated-For the Electron Transport Chain: NADH and FADH2 pass their electrons through the protein complexes until they reach O2, the final electron acceptor. Those electrons passing through the complexes causes a change in the protein that causes hydrogen ions to be pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, where they build up and to get back to equilibrium, they travel back into the intermembrane space through ATP synthase (chemiosmosis). The ATP synthase harnesses that energy (proton motive force) and uses it to phosphorylate ADP to make ATP. Oxidation phosphorylation consists of: 1. Electron Transport Chain2. ChemiosmosisETC: Electrons are passed through a number of proteins to O2, the final electron acceptor. It consists of a series of molecules, mostly proteins, embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Chapter 12 The Cell cycle and MitosisCell division: the reproduction of cells (2 kinds)The purpose of cell division is: reproduction of cells, growth and development of organism, and to repair damage of tissues.Mitosis: - Produces somatic cells, - Diploid- Identical Meiosis: takes place in germ/reproductive cells - Produces gametes (sperm/egg)- Haploid- Non-identical daughter cells that have 1 set of chromosomes ( ½ as many as parent cell)The cell cycle: The cell cycle consists of two phases: 1. Mitotic (M) Phase: “cell division phase”a. Mitosis: division of the nucleusb. Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm2. Interphase: “cell growth and copying of chromosomes in prep for cell division”a. G1 phase “the first gap”b. S phase “synthesis”c. G2 phase “second gap”The M phase is the shortest part of the cycle. The M phase alternates with a longerstage, Interphase, which accounts for about 90% of the cycle. Intense metabolic activity occurs throughout interphase. During all sub phases, a cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER).- Cell grows and prepares for DNA replication in the G1 phase- Duplication of chromosomes occurs in the S phase. - Further growth takes place in G2 phase - Finally mitosis occurs in the M phase. Mitosis is divided into 5 phases1. Prophase2. Prometaphase3. Metaphase4. Anaphase5. Telophase1. Prophase:- The genetic material is already duplicated from interphase- Chromatin become coiled (condenses) into chromosomes and can be viewed under microscope (each with 2 sister chromatids


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SC BIOL 101 - bio 101 final notes

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