Final BIO 101 Exam Study Guide (9,12,13, 15, 17)Chapter-9- Cellular Respiration1. Respiration- Aerobic, Anaerobic, Fermentation. What is Oxidation and Reduction? What are Oxidizing and Reducing agents in any reaction?2. Coenzymes, NADH and FADH2, what are oxidized states of these coenzyme?3. Respiration in detail,(you must know all that is on power point)a. Glycolysis (start and end products), b. Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA, a. in the presence of O2, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion Before the citric acid cycle can begin, pyruvate must be converted to acetyl CoA, which links the cycle to glycolysisc. Citric acid cycled. Oxidative phosphorylation (ETC and Chemiosmosis)• Cellular respiration has three stages:1. Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, occurs in Cytoplasm, Glycolysis can take place both in presence and absence of Oxygen)2. The citric acid cycle (completes the breakdown of glucose, only in presence of oxygen, occurs in mitochondrial matrix)3. Oxidative phosphorylation (accounts for most of the ATP synthesis, occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane) The process that generates most of the ATP is called oxidative phosphorylation because it is powered by redox reactions Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration. A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation4. Fermentation, Alcohol, lactic acid as end product and what are obligate anaerobe, facultative anaerobe.Chapter 12- The Cell Cycle and MitosisMitosis: Chromatin=uncondensed DNA which is found in nucleus and anaphase and when it goes to mitosis it condenses into chromosomes called chromatids1. Cell Division 2 kinds- Mitosis- produces Somatic cells, Diploid, Identical- Meiosis- produces Gametes, (Sperm, egg) also know as reproductivecells, Haploid, non identical2. Know all of the following terms –- Chromatin, Chromosomes, Homologous Chromosomes, Sister Chromatids- Centrosome, Centromere, Spindle fibers, KinetochoreInside centromere where spindle fibers attach it is the kinetochoreSpindle fibers come from centrosomes3. Eukaryotic Cell cycle – M phase + Interphase- M phase or Mitotic phase or cell division phase ---- Mitosis + Cytokienesis - Interphase or cell growth and chromosome copying phase -- G1+ S+ G2 Mitosis- 1. Prophase 2. Prometaphase 3. Metaphase 4.Anaphase 5.Telophase (PPMAT)Cytokenesis- – Is the Division of cytoplasm (Cleavage in animal cell and Cell plate in Plant cell)4. Binary fission, Origin of replication, Cell cycle control system ( cell clock), what happens when cell in different stages are fused together(slide 18)5. G1, and G2 Checkpoint of cell cycle control systems, what’s G0?6. MPF --- Cyclin + CDk, MPF triggers cell into past G2 into M.7. Internal and external signals at checkpoints ----- lead to either a go ahead or stop signal- Internal signals- kinetochores not attached to spindle microtubules- External signals- 3 kinds1. Growth factor (PDGF) 2. Anchorage dependence 3. Density-dependent inhibition8. How do cancer cells behave differently than normal Cell in case of Internal and external signals? What is Transformation, Benign tumor, Malignant tumor, Metastasis- Cancer cells are different than normal cells because they do not exhibit density-dependent inhibition or anchorage dependence. They do not respond normally to the body’s control mechanisms. They do not need growth factors to grow and divide because: they may make their own growth factor, they may convey a growth factors signal without the presence f the growth factor, and they may have an abnormal cell cycle control system.- Normal cells are converted to a cancerous cell by a transformation. They form tumors, which are masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue, and if those abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor. Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize which means the cancerous cells export to other parts of the body where they may form secondary tumors. Chapter 13- Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles1. Sexual and Asexual reproduction, Karyotype, Autososmes, Sex chromosomes.2. Meiosis, Mitosis, fertilization(which two of these 3 alternate the chromosomenumber in sexual life cycle) 3. Homologous chromosomes(Maternal and paternal), Sister Chromatids, Nonsister chromatids4. Meiosis—Meiosis I + Meiosis II, what is the outcome/ result of each one (slide 11)a) Meiosis I – Prophase I  Metaphase I Anaphase I  Telophase I and cytokenisis (PMAT)b) Meiosis II – Prophase II  Metaphase II Anaphase II  Telophase II and cytokenisis (PMAT)5. Synapsis leading to Crossing over (happens in Prophase) 6. Sexual reproduction - occurs by three mechanisms a) Independent assortment of chromosomesb) Crossing overc) Random fertilizationChapter 15- Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance1. Chromosome theory of inheritance, Locus/ loci, Wild type, Mutant.2. XX, XY chromosomes, Sex linked genes, recessive sex-linked trait for males and females3. Barr body, Linked genes, Parental types, genetic recombination, recombinants, crossing over4. Alteration of Chromosome numbera) Non disjunction, Aneuploidy, Monosomic, TrisomicMonosomy in females with only one X results in – Turner’s syndromeTrisomy with Chromosome 21 results in - Down SyndromeTrisomy in male with X chromosome results in- Klinfelter’s syndromeb) Polyploidy- Triploidy and Tetraploidy5. Alteration of Chromosome structure by Deletion, Duplication, Inversion, TranslocationChapter 17- From Gene to Protein1. Central dogma of Molecular Biology, DNA ® mRNA ® Protein is a 2 step process, 1st step know as Transcription and 2nd as Translation.2. What are 2 differences between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation? (Hint, location and RNA processing).3. What is a Codon? (triplet nucleotide bases of mRNA), its role?(bringing in AA, that is attached to one end of tRNA molecule, during Translation) when? (after this codon on mRNA finds its complement Anicodon on the other end oftRNA molecule ) 4. Point to note- there are 20 different A.A, 61 codons that code for one of these 20A.A. Hence, there is a redundancy where few different codons code for same amino acid, but at the same time, no codon would ever code for more than 1 AA.5. What is the direction in which codons or mRNA segments will be read in Ribosomes, to make proteins, what is a Start and Stop