ANTH1102 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 7 - 12Race and EthnicityBiological diversity is seen through phenotypes (physical expressions of genes); thus, different phenotypes occur from adaptation to environmental stimuli. The biological definition of race is: an isolated subdivision of a species based on common ancestry and biological traits. However, this definition is problematic because humans are not reproductively isolated- skin color has a clinal distribution- so the best definition of race would be the classification of peoples based on presumed biological similarities. Race is a cultural expression with no biological basis, so its classifications differ across the world. For example, hypodescent led to the “One Drop Rule” in which an interracial relationship, the minority parent’s race is assigned to the child. Another example of culture defining race is the decidedly homogenous Japanese where intrinsic racism, or the idea that perceived racial differences are sufficient basis for devaluing groups, is common. Then there are the Brazilians who have heterogenous multiracial categories and valuethe idea of an achieved race and style shifting because in their culture- racial categories are a historical legacy. Lastly, many Mexicans affected by colonialism and categorization view intermixed “races” as one race (combination of indigenous and European bloodlines).Ethnicity is identification with an ethnic group, whether individuals identify themselves, or the individuals are identified by others based on: cultural descent, biological descent, historically known geological origins, shared language, and shared sense. People who identify with a specific nation classify their nationality. Ethnic conflict has arisen over prejudice of stereotypes causing discrimination: de facto (in practice, but not necessarily lawful, e.g. racial profiling) or de juro (under law, e.g. segregation and apartheid). These ideas have led to ethnocide- the deliberate destruction of an ethnic culture, not to be confused with genocide that focuses on systematic destruction of racial, political, or cultural groups.EvolutionEvolution is simply defined as change over time; biological evolution states that species change and give rise to new species. Evidence of this is supported by studying fossil records and living species. There exists many theories on human evolution, including catastrophism, transformism,and uniformitarianism proposed by Sir Charles Lyell who believed current earth processes are the same as those in the past (e.g. Bryce Canyon, Utah). Charles Darwin (and Alfred Wallace)created a theory to explain change, the origins of species, and natural selection called Darwinian Evolution. The principles were variation, inheritance, differential survival and reproduction- struggle for existence. In conclusion, natural selection meant that those forms most successful at reproducing in specific environments are selected, thus changing species over time. However, Darwin missed some important keys: mechanisms of inheritance, origin of variation, and population genetics. Mendelian Genetics described further the ideas of genetic inheritance by studying pea plants and using Punnett Squares to determine phenotypes of offspring by multiplying factors (genes from parents). There are homozygous gene combinationsthat consist of two of the same genes (both dominant or recessive, and there are heterozygous combinations that consist of two different genes (one dominant, one recessive). There are also different types of cell division: mitosis (between regular cells) and meiosis (between sex cells- chromosomes). During meiosis, chromosomes intertwine and exchange segments of DNA, which is called crossing over. Macroevolution is the genetic change in a population or species over time, while microevolution is the change in genetic frequencies (alleles) in a population over few, several, or many generations. There are four forces of macroevolution that affect geological distribution of varied human traits: natural selection, mutations, random genetic drift, and gene flow. Punctuated equilibrium (Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldridge, 1972) describes long periods of stability with occasional evolutionary leaps (extinction and succession/replacement, mutations speed up evolution). Adaptation, a series of beneficial traits, is one of the main reasons that humans can survive for so long and in so many diverse environments. This is studied and presented by Allen and Bergman’s Rules, when they describe how certain body types are selected for in certain climate temperatures- in hot climates tall, thin bodies are common and cold climates yield short, stocky body types because of benefits that helped them survive and have reproductive success. They also noticed the Quechua (Southern Peru) and Sherpa (Nepal) cultures that live at high altitudes and have biological traits that allow them to live in such