PSYCH 333 1nd Edition Lecture 4 Outline of Last Lecture I. Genetics; Mental Illness is Inherited.II. Behavior Genetics.III. Neuroscience/Neurobiology.IV. Neuro-Anatomy.V. Neurons.VI. Types of Neurotransmitter.VII. Neurotransmitter and Psychopathology.VIII. Neuroendocrine System.IX. Cross-Paradigms.X. Diathesis-Stress Model.Outline of Current Lecture II. What is a Diagnosis?III. Reliability and Validity.IV. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM).V. Cultural Considerations.VI. How are Diagnosis Made?VII. Cultural Considerations (part two).Current Lecture- What is a Diagnosis?o Symptom – observable state/behavior.o Syndrome – constellation of symptoms that co-vary; no etiology (cause).o Disorder – ruled out some possibilities; no etiology (cause).o Disease – symptoms with known etiology.o Categorical vs. dimensional. Dimensional – on a spectrum. Categorical – severe to non-severe.o Why diagnose? Understand distressing/impairing symptoms. Communicate with other clinicians/researchers. Match treatment to disorder.- Reliability and validity:o Reliability = consistency of measures.These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. Example: a scale that is exactly 5lbs off.o Validity = what are we measuring? Example: scale to measure density.o Types of reliability: Internal consistency.- Pointing to the same thing.o Questionnaire. Inter-rater.- Reliability across raters.o Diagnosis. Test-retest.- Reliability across time.o Height. Alternate form.- Reliability across different forms of the same thing.o Tests.o Types of validity: Content.- Information on what we want to measure. Criterion.- An external source that should match what we are trying to measure.- Concurrent.o Validity with two points at the same time.- Predictive.o Validity across two points in time. Construct.- Not tangible, and not directly measure what we want to measure.- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM):o Currently in the 5th edition.o Lists all current mental disorders, symptoms, associated features, prevalence rates, etc.o Alternate diagnostic- ICD (more common if you work in a physical health).- Cultural Considerations:o Prevalence rates of most disorders vary across different cultural groups.o Factors associated with cultures can be protective or predispose an individual.o Cultural context of symptoms. Example: belief in demon possession.o Variations in symptom presentation across cultures.o Culture-bound disorders. Example: Taijin kyofusho.*What are some steps clinicians take to reduce bias when diagnosing individuals from minority culture?* Keep an open mind, take the culture into consideration.- Criticisms of the DSM/Diagnosis:o Numbers of diagnoses. Comorbidity between diagnoses.o Categorical rather than a dimensional classification.o Reliability of diagnosis in practice.o Are diagnostic categories valid?o Stigma associated with mental health diagnoses.o Diagnosis changes our schemas of a person.- How are diagnosis made?o Clinical interviews.o Self-report measures. Checklist. Questionnaires.o Behavioral observation.o Self-monitoring.o Personality test. Objective. Projective.o Neuropsychological tests. Intelligence. Achievement. Executive functioning. Performance.o Neuroimaging.o EEG.o CT.o MRI.o fMRI.- Cultural considerations:o Administering the assessments in client’s native language.o Content of items is often culture-specific.o Different language/interpretation can lead to over-pathologizing.o Impact of racism/stress. Stereotype