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Stanford CEE 215 - Hazardous substances in separately collected grey- and blackwater from ordinary Swedish households

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Hazardous substances in separately collected grey- and blackwater from ordinary Swedish householdsIntroductionObjectives and scopeMethodSelected hazardous substancesSite descriptionSampling of greywaterSampling of blackwaterAnalytical methodsResults and discussionGreywater flowBlackwater flowOrdinary wastewater parametersElementsOrganic substancesMethodological difficultiesMass flows and sourcesConclusionsAcknowledgementsReferencesHazardous substances in separately collected grey- and blackwaterfrom ordinary Swedish householdsHelena Palmquist*,Jo¨rgen HanæusDivision of Sanitary Engineering, Lulea University of Technology, SE-971 87 Lulea, SwedenReceived 15 July 2004; accepted 22 December 2004Available online 11 February 2005AbstractThe objective of this paper is to present the mass flows of a number of selected hazardous substances in raw, separate grey-and blackwater from ordinary Swedish households. The Vibyasen housing area was selected for the investigation since itswastewater system has separate flows for grey- and blackwater. Due to the high analytical costs, a limited number of hazardoussubstances had to be selected and the number of samples restricted. The greywater flow was manually measured and thesamples were collected at set time intervals. The blackwater samples were randomly collected from a blackwater tank. A total of105 selected hazardous substances were measured in both fractions. Of the 24 elements (Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, S, Al, Ag, As, Ba,Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Pt, Sb, Sn, Te, Zn) measured in both fractions, 22 were detected in the greywater and 23 inthe blackwater. 81 organic substances were selected and measured in both fractions (nonylphenol- and octylphenol ethoxylates,brominated flame-retardants, organotin compounds, PAH, PCB, phthalates, monocyclic aromatics, and triclosan). 46 organicsubstances were found in greywater and 26 in blackwater. PCB was the only group found in neither grey- nor blackwater. Thegreywater flow fluctuated, with a specific average flow of 66 L per person and day. The composition of blackwater alsofluctuated, with shifting proportions of urine, faeces, and flush water. The specific average blackwater flow was 28.5 L perperson and day. The mixture of substances in separate wastewater fractions from Swedish households was too complex toexactly distinguish their specific sources.D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.Keywords: Blackwater; Greywater; Hazardous substances; Households; Mass flow; Metals; Organic compounds1. IntroductionThe content of hazardous elements and organicsubstances in wastewater and sludge reflects asociety where large amounts of different chemicalsare used for a variety of purposes. For many of thenumerous substances present in our society, knownand unknown paths to the municipal wastewatersystem exist. In this paper substances were used interms of bchemical elements and their compounds inthe natural state or obtained by any productionprocessQ while hazardous properties were used as0048-9697/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.12.052* Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 920 491452; fax: +46 920491493.E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Palmquist).Science of the Total Environment 348 (2005) 151 – 163www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenvthe binherent capacity that a substance has to causeadverse effectsQ (Commission of the EuropeanCommunities, 2001). Due to efforts to reduce pointsources (especially indu strial d ischarges), diffusesources presently account for the majority of waste-water pollution, indicating that the role of house-holds as wastewater polluters has become moresignificant. To deal with this situation, instrumentsfor wastewater assessment and management need tobe developed. One approach is to search for house-hold sources in wastewater systems, i.e. in separatewastewater fractions like urine, faeces, and grey-water. The qualitative and quantitative characteristicsof separate wastewater fractions may serve as a basefor various wastewater management approaches,such as systems analysis, risk assessment, substanceflow analysis, and communication.Greywater is generally defined as householdwastewater without any input from toilets, corre-sponding to wastewater from bathing, showering,hand washing, laundr y, and the kitchen sink. Grey-water has been estimated to account for about 70–75vol.% of domestic wastewater (Hansen and Kjellerup,1994). Blackwater is characterised as toilet wastefrom water closets—faeces, urine, toilet paper, andflush-water. According to Jefferson et al. (1999) andthe comprehensive literature review by Eriksson et al.(2002), there is a lack of reliable information withrespect to both the composition of greywater and thetreatment and recycling technologies available forgreywater. Increas ing the knowledge of grey- andblackwater chara cteristics is important to fill theinformation gap regarding the contribution of pollu-tants to wastewater from households. This informationis useful for the management of both traditional andalternative wastewater systems.2. Objectives and scopeThis article focuses on the characteristics of grey-and blackwater, emphasizi ng the flow of hazardoussubstances from households. The objective of thispaper was to present the mass flows of a number ofselected hazardous substances and ordinary waste-water parameters from raw separate grey- and black-water of ordinary Swedish households. A total of 24elements (Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, S, Al, Ag, As, Ba, Bi,Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Pt, Sb, Sn, Te, Zn)and 81 organic compounds (nonylphenol- and octyl-phenol ethoxylates, brominated flame-retardants,organotin compounds, PAH, PCB, phthalates, mono-cyclic arom atics, and triclosan) were investigated, aswell as the ordinary wastewater parameters: biochem-ical oxygen dema nd (BOD7), chemical ox ygendemand (CODCr), total nitrogen (Ntot), total phospho-rus ( Ptot), total solids (TS ), and volatile solids (VS).Data on the characteristics of wastewater fractionsfor a selected number of hazardous substances,attained by the field measurements, is essential toimprove the prerequisites for performing substanceflow analysis and chemical risk assessment of thewastewater systems.A limited budget allowed measurements at onlyone site, and due to the high analytical costs, a limitednumber of hazardous substances had to be selectedand the number of samples restricted. The design andtiny dimensions of the sampling well did


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Stanford CEE 215 - Hazardous substances in separately collected grey- and blackwater from ordinary Swedish households

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