NUR 0012Exam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 7Lecture 1 (August 27):Know the definitions of anatomy and physiology:Anatomy: study of the structure of the body and how those structures are designed to perform specific functionsPhysiology: study of how body structures function and how their functions can regulate the body (within a narrow range of values)What are the levels of structural hierarchy in the human body?The levels occur in the following order from most basic level to most complex. The chemical level includes atoms, elements, organelles, and other molecules. The cellular level is the basic living unit of all things. Next, the tissue level includes 4 different types; epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous. A tissue is a group of like cells. The organ level is composed of 2 or moretypes of tissues working together. The organ system level is composed of organs working together (example is the respiratory system which is composed of the lungs, bronchi, and trachea). Lastly, the organismal level can be made up of 1 cell or trillions of cells.Know the gross components and general functions of the major organ systems:1.The integumentary system includes the skin, dermis, and glands. Regulation and protection of the body prevents water loss.2. The skeletal system includes bones, cartilages, ligaments, and tendons. It provides the body with protection and support and produces red blood cells.3.The muscular system includes muscles which are attached to bones. It controls movements, posture, and generates heat.4.The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors. It regulates and coordinates sensation, movement, and other functions.5.The endocrine system includes the pituitary, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal,ovaries, testes, and pancreas. It involves the regulation and maintenance of growth, metabolism, etc.6.The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It involves the transport of nutrients and waste. It also has an immune function.7.The lymphatic system includes vessels, nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils and lymph tissue. It is involved in the immune response, circulatory functions, and fat absorption.8.The respiratory system includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, lungs, and bronchi. Itcontrols O2 and CO2 exchange.9.The digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. It involves mechanical and chemical breakdown of ingested foods, and absorption.10. The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It is involved in the removal of waste, regulation of pH, and water balance.11. The male reproductive system includes the testes, prostate, scrotum, penis, and the duct system. The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, mammary glands, and vagina. It produces sex cells and sex hormones.Lecture 2 (August 29):Define homeostasis and be able to interpret negative and positive feedback mechanisms:Homeostasis is our body’s ability to maintain consistency in the body’s internal environment no matter what the external environment is. Negative feedback mechanisms are responsible for the majority of homeostatic control in the body. A deviation from the normal set point is diminished or resisted completely by these mechanisms. The set point refers to the level at which a certain variable tends to stabilize. The normal range refers to the normal range of values corresponding to a certain variable that has an effect on the body. For example, our normal body temperature is approximately 98.6 F, but that number can deviate a few degrees without having a negative effect on the body. This refers to body temperature’s normal range. A stimulus such as heat is detected by receptors in our skin and our brain. The receptors then send a signal through the afferent pathway to the control center (part of brain that regulates action for the specific variable at hand). The control center then sends a signal through the efferent pathway to effectors such as sweat glands that induce some sort of response (such as sweating) to bring the body back to a balanced state.Examples mentioned in class include regulation of heart rate due to changes in blood pressure level and hormone release in response to blood glucose levels. Positive feedback mechanisms are rare. They tend to amplify the deviation from the normal setpoint.They can be both beneficial and unhealthy (sometimes fatal). Beneficial mechanisms include labor/delivery and blood clotting. These feedback mechanisms have a “STOP” signal that prevents the action from continuing and harming the body. During labor, oxytocin is released by the posterior pituitary when a signal comes in and gets amplified. A signal reaches a “stop” signal once the baby is born. Platelets and other proteins are activated when the skin is damaged and blood clotting begins. Patheophysiologic examples occur when the normal cycle gets disrupted. Blood pressure is a good example of harmful positive feedback. If a limb/artery is cut blood pressure will go down since blood is being rapidly pumped out. The control center then signals body to speed up the heart rate in response. As a result, the body has an escalating cascade of blood pressure dropping and heart rate speeding up which can lead to fatal results. Be able to describe body planes and body regions using anatomical terminology:Directional Terminology:Regional Terminology:Sectional Terminology:1.Frontal/coronal plane: split front to back (anterior, posterior)2.Transverse/horizontal plane: split through torso, split top and bottom3.Sagittal plane: section parallel to midline from anterior to posterior surfacea. Midsagittal: section down the midlineb. Parasagittal: not on midline but still parallel to midline4.Oblique plane: section at an angle through the bodyLecture 3 (September 3):Discuss the basics of atomic structure:Protons are positively charged particles found in the nucleus. Neutrons are neutral (uncharged) particles that are also found in the nucleus. Electrons orbit around the nucleus and are negatively charged. Their attraction to the positive charge in the nucleus keeps them in orbit. Know the different kind of chemical bonds we discussed in class and be able to identify examplesof each: Ionic bonds occur when one atom loses an electron and another gains it; the electrons are