Slide 1Slide 2Slide 3Slide 4Slide 5Slide 6Slide 7Slide 8Slide 9Slide 10Slide 11Slide 12Slide 13Slide 14Slide 15Slide 16Slide 17Slide 18Slide 19Slide 20Slide 21Slide 22Slide 23Slide 24Slide 25Slide 26Slide 27Slide 28Slide 29Slide 30Slide 31Slide 32Slide 33Slide 34Slide 35Slide 36Slide 37Slide 38Slide 39Slide 40Slide 41Slide 42Important principles for interpreting changein the world and for understanding thefossil record:1. UniformitarianismRates and processes in the past were the sameas can be observed today.2. Steno’s Law or the Law of SuperpositionIn undisturbed deposits, deeper strata will be older.BASIC VOCABULARYArtifact: an object made, used, or altered by humansFossils: are rocks. They may be mineralized organicremains (such as bones) turned to rock, or they may beimpressions such as footprints.Fossil locality: a place where fossils are foundSite: a place where human activity occurredNOT where archaeologists dig: it is a site whetheror not it is found or excavatedTaphonomy: the study of the processes thataffect bones after the deathof an animalFossil localities occur only under special conditions of preservationExamples of artifactsA point (a biface)Rhyolite debitage from flintknappingPottery sherdsArchaeologists: study human behaviorthrough material remains. They are interested inuncovering clues to culture and they excavateat archaeological sites.Paleoanthropologists: search for anunderstanding of early humans and humanancestors. They excavate at fossil localities,which may also be archaeological sites.Midden: trash mixed with dirt. May occur spread across an area as a sheet midden,or it may fill a feature. Usually black in color.Matrix: the dirt that holds and supports artifacts and featuresSterile: dirt that contains no cultural remainsLiving floor/surface: ancient surfaceupon which activities took placeFeature: a non-portable artifact embedded in the matrix, such as a hearth or postmoldpostmolds(where a woodenpost used to be)Plan view(map with abird’s-eye view)How can an archaeologist define a feature?Several clues in the field:1. Different texture2. Different color (often dark because filled with midden!)3. Contains artifacts4. Shape/size of it helpsProvenience: exact horizontal and verticallocation of somethingDatum: a reference point made at a site orfossil locality for establishing a grid (horizontalmapping) and vertical referenceSince we are interested in human behavior,archaeologists and paleoanthropologists actlike CSI investigators. The context andassociation of artifacts, features, living floors,etc. are important for interpreting the behavior.This big nail acts asa vertical datum for a unitMapping theprovenienceHorizontal mappingVertical mappingStratigraphy: layeringCould be layers of dirt at an archaeological orpaleontological siteCould be layers of rockStratum: a layerStrata: layers (plural)As we’ll talk about next class, deeper strata are olderPlow zoneSecond stage:Basket-laidfill (nearly sterilesilty clay: 3 colors)First mound stage(silty clay loam,loaded with artifacts)Midden/Ab horizon(silty clay)B horizon(silty clay, sterile)N332 E428 E1/2 West ProfileProfle view(sideways view)DEPOSITIONWe need to be able to distinguishNATURAL deposition fromCULTURAL depositionSo an archaeologist needs to know a lot about dirtand soil formation processesThree steps or stages to archaeological investigations:1. Survey to find sites2. Test the sites you found to learn basic info3. Excavate those sites of interest to learn detailsHow do we fnd fossil localitiesor archaeological sites?Survey: a systematic examination of an areato find sites/fossil localitiesTake environmental (and past environmental),topographical, and geological conditions intoconsideration in targeting likely areas.To find old sites, you must look in old dirt!!!To surveyMay walk and look on surface for artifacts or fossils Works best for artifacts if it is a plowed field Works best for fossils if it is an eroded, bare-dirt surfaceHere in South Carolina, archaeologists digshovel test pits in regular grids, looking forartifacts and cultural dirt (midden) beneath the near surfaceShovel test pitsTest each siteLooking for time period,size, type of site,Integrity: is any of thesite still intact?is it worth excavation?Generally in testing, you want to examinethe stratigraphy, in just small areasor test unitsBelmont Neck site, SCSummer 2004Part of testing a site may include remote sensing:a technique to examine what is underground before you dig into the groundExamples of remote sensing:Using metal detector (historic sites with metal)Proton magnetometry (measure magnetic field)Electrical resistivityGround penetrating radarMagnetometerMeasures intensity of magnetic fieldor magnetic anomalies underground http://www.geomodel.com/em/http://www.nd.edu/~mschurr/bennac97.htmlSoil ResistivityBy sticking metal probes in the ground andrunning an electric current between themMeasure differences in electrical resistivity, ability of deposits to conduct electrical currentFor example, walls and roads high resistivity; pits lowhttp://www.nd.edu/~mschurr/geophys.html#geophyshttp://www.cast.uark.edu/~kkvamme/geop/double.htmResistivityreadingsoverlaid ontopo mapofhistoricMandanearthlodgefortified villageGround Penetrating Radarelectromagnetic waves reflect back as echoes from interfacesIs especially good for finding layersInstrument can be set to look at a specific rangeof depthhttp://www.geomodel.com/Pulling the instrumentReadout showing 3 buriedmetal tankshttp://www.du.edu/~lconyer/pit_houses.htmLocating pit housesin the SouthwestMay excavate the siteExcavation generally opens up ahorizontal area of one time periodBerry site, NC: 1500s Spanish house,burnt by IndiansShovel scraping allows a lot of dirt to be removed quickly, yet one can still keep track of dirt colors. Note the buffer left around the edges to protect the unit walls from the shovel.Shovel ScrapingWhen a level is complete, the extra dirt is cut away. This is called “cutting the profiles”. The string at the surface marks the ideal shapeof the unit. Cut proflesTrowelling is slower than shovel scraping, but leaves a level surface with cleanly cut dirtthat shows the dirt colors or feature edges.TrowellingWe measure the depth below a temporary datum using a line level. We measure the depth to the top and the bottom of each level.Mapping and measurementsDirt colors, the outlines of features, and certain artifacts are mapped at the top of
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