Final exam review1. Ch 2a. Know your bondsi. 3 bonds-1. Covalent- sharing a pair of electronsa. Polar-unequal sharingb. Non-polar- equal sharing. No partial charges2. Ionic- gain or loss of electron3. Hydrogen- form between water molecules, BUT water molecules are held together by covalent bonds.2. Ch 3a. Know properties of wateri. Cohesive behavior- Collectively, hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together.1. Surface tension- a measure of how hard it is to break the surface of a liquid2. Adhesion- an attraction betweeen different substances.ii. Ability to moderate temperatureiii. Expansion upon freezingiv. Versatility as a solventb. Determining molecular mass—know your unitsc. Lower the pH, the more hydrogen protons it hasi. For every increment X10----- pH 1 is 10 times more acidic than pH 2.3. Ch 5a. Know dehydration synthesis is what makes polymers--- hydrolysis breaks them down.b. How to identify sugar—know table from ch 5c. There will be quite a few questions from this chapter4. Ch 6a. Know diff between prokaryotes and eurkaryotes.i. Two types of cells:1. Prokaryotic- Archea, bacteriaa. No nucleusb. DNA in nucleoidc. No membrane-bound organellesd. Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membranee. NO ER2. Eukaryotic- Eukaryaa. Generally much larger and more complexb. DNA in nucleus bounded by the nuclear envelopec. Membrane-bound organellesi. Organelles perform specific functions within the cell, and are BOUND by a membrane.ii. Each has its own environment, function, and composition. 3. Common to both- a. Plasma membrane, semifluid substance called cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes.4. Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotic cells- a. True nucleus and membrane bound organelles.5. Ch 7a. Because bilayer- they are asymmetrical so what’s on top does not equal what’s on bottom.b. Tonicity- hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic. i. Know how to do it with numbers. WATER GOES TOWARDS SUGAR!!c. Many questions on this chapter.6. Ch 8a. Know catabolism vs anabolismi. Metabolism= Catabolism + Anabolism1. Anabolic pathways consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones.a. Requires energyb. Ex: Synthesis of proteins from amino acids2. Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compoundsa. Bonds break and form, which releases energy and forms lower-energy breakdown productsb. Ex: Breaking down starch into glucose moleculesb. Features of delta G positive or negative1. ΔG =Gfinal – Ginitial2. Spontaneous or Exergonic: Energetically favorable aka wants to happen.a. ΔG<0 or negative free energy change (-ΔG)b. No input of energyc. Not necessarily fastd. Release energy3. Not spontaneous or Endergonic: energetically unfavorable a. ΔG>0 or positive free energy change (+ΔG)b. Requires addition of free energyc. Needs energyc. Know enzymes- speeds up reaction by decreasing reaction energy needed.d. Enzyme features:i. Active site- location where reaction takes place.ii. Substrate- reactants that bind to active site for the reaction to occur.iii. Enzyme- substrate complex formed when enzyme and substrate bind. 1. Induced fit- binding initiates the enzyme to change shape slightly so the substrate does not fall out before reaction is complete.e. Allosteric- is non-competitive1. Competitive Inhibition-a. Molecule binds to active siteb. Inhibits ability of substrate to bind2. Noncompetitive inhibition- binds to allosteric site and warps the active site so the substrate cannot pair with enzyme.a. Allosteric Inhibition: inhibitor binds to allosteric site- not active site.i. Allosteric regulation of enzymes- may either inhibit or stimulate an enzyme activity.1. Occurs when a regulatory molecule binds to a protein at one site and affects the protein’s function at another site.2. Many enzymes have active and inactive formsa. The binding of an activator stabilizes theactive form of the enzymeb. The binding of an inhibitor stabilizes theinactive form of the enzyme.7. Ch 9a. Where does glycolysis happen?1. Glycolysis (“sugar splitting”)- breaks down glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate. a. Occurs in cytoplasm.b. Two major phases-i. Energy investment phaseii. Energy payoff phasec. Occurs whether or not O2 is present.d. Net yield- 2ATP + 2NADHb. Purpose of fermentation—get energy from glycolysis, regenerates NAD+, know features of steps1. Fermentation (a type of anaerobic respiration) is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O2, and uses substrate-level phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP.a. Types of Fermentation-i. Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+, which can be reused by glycolysisii. Two common types are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation1. Alcohol fermentation- pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps.2. Lactic Acid Fermentation- pyruvate is reduced by NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2c. Know goals of each process/cyclei. Aerobic respiration- yields ATPii. Anaerobic respiration- produce ATPiii. Glycolysis- 2 ATP + H208. Ch 10: Photosynthesisa. Features of Calvin cycle vs light reactionsi. Two stages of photosynthesis:1. Light reactions- the photo parta. Occurs in the thylakoid membraneb. Split H2O & Release O2c. Reduce the electron acceptor NADP+ to NADPHd. Generate ATP from ADP by photophosphorylation2. Calvin cycle- the synthesis parta. In the stromab. Forms sugar from CO2, using ATP and NADPHc. Begins with carbon fixation, incorporating CO2 into organic molecules.d. Requires both NADPH and ATPii. Water is source of electrons iii. Direct end product?iv. Where does it occur?9. Ch 12: Mitosisa. Understand cell cycle is the life of a cellb. Cytokinesis—cleavage in animals, and in plants they form a cell plate10. Ch 13: Meiosisa. Look at ven diagram comparing mitosis and meiosis11. Ch 14: Gene Theorya. Knowing genotype vs phenotypeb. Possible gamatesc. HAS LARGE PRESENCE ON FINAL12. Ch 16: DNA Replicationa. Know key enzymesa. Key players:i. Proteins- (ase=enzyme)1. Helicase: separates parental strands of DNA2. Single-stranded binding protein: binds to single strand to keep parent strands separate.3. Toposisomerase: Relieves supercoiling, preventing the DS helix from getting too windedup. 4. Primase: Lays down an RNA primer5.a. Leading strand:i. Goes into the forkii. Continuous iii. Requires only one primeriv. Order of enzyme work:v. Primasevi. Dpol IIIvii. DPol Iviii.
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