Psych 101 1st Edition Lecture 14Outline of Last Lecture II. Memory a. Encodingb. Storage c. RetrievalIII. Information processinga. Three-stage modelsi. Sensory ii. Short-termiii. Long-termIV. Automatic processinga. Spaceb. Timec. FrequencyV. Effortful processingVI. Rehearsal VII. Memory effectsa. Spacing effectb. Serial position effectVIII. Three ways we encodea. Meaningb. Imagesc. Organizationi. Chunking ii. Hierarchy IX. Sensory memorya. Visual codeb. Haptic codec. Acoic codeX. Short-termXI. Long-termXII. Retrieval: cues a. Recognitionb. RecallXIII. Retrieval: flashbulb memoriesXIV.Retrieval: Eyewitness TestimonyXV. Forgetting: a decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memoryThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.i. Decay theoryii. Interference theoryiii. Retrieval theoryiv. Motivated forgetting theoryb. Proactive interferencec. Retroactive interferenceXVI. Improving your memorya. Distribute practiceb. Take testsc. Sleep (8 hours)d. Recite (if you can teach it to someone else)e. Use mnemonics Outline of Current Lecture Cognition: to thinkI. ImagesII. Concepts/categoriesIII. Types of conceptsa. Conjunctiveb. Disjunctivec. Relationald. Faultye. Prototypef. ExemplarIV. Organizing conceptsa. Superordinate b. Basicc. SubordinateV. SchemasVI. Problem-solving: AlgorithmsVII. Problem-solving: Heuristicsa. Availabilityb. Representativec. Recognitiond. EffectVIII. Barriers to problem solvinga. Function fixednessb. Framingc. Mental setIX. CreativityX. LanguageXI. The evolution of languageXII. Building blocks of languagea. Phonemesb. Morphemesc. Syntaxd. Semanticse. Surface and deep structuresXIII. Language: AphasiaXIV. The biology of languagea. Broca’sb. Wernicke’sXV. Animal communicationXVI. Learning language (how we learn language)a. Behaviorist approachb. Nativist approach XVII. Development XVIII. History of assessing intelligencea. Alfred Binet and Theodore Simoni. Intelligence testb. Stanford-Bineti. Standardized intelligence testc. Wechsler intelligence scalesi. The curveCurrent Lecture cont. Ch.10Cognition: (To think)a. Helps construct models of world around usb. Helps regulate our behavior to meet and achieve goals we needc. How we solve problemsI. Imagesd. Representations of sensory experiences that are stored in memory and can be retrieved for usei. Ex: pulling up lyrics for songse. Rotation tasks done during cognition i. Putting pieces together/rearranging II. Concepts/categoriesa. A general idea or mental representationb. Formed by special mechanisms that we usec. They can be formal or naturali. Natural is through experienceii. Formal is the general view III. Types of conceptsa. Conjunctive (AND): two or more featuresi. Ex: a motor cycles needs to have to wheels, a handle, and seat to be a motorcycleb. Disjunctive (OR): at least one of several possible featuresi. Ex: something that could get you a foul in a sportc. Relational: how features relate to one anotheri. Ex: people relationships/having a siblingd. Faulty: oversimplified or inaccuratei. Ex: stereotypes e. Prototype: ideal model for an entire categoryi. Ex: your average version of a dogf. Exemplar: specific member of a categoryi. Ex: your favorite dog, your childhood dog, etc.IV. Organizing conceptsa. Superordinate (broad)i. Ex: fruitb. Basici. We tend to operate in the mostii. Ex: identifying an animal as a dog, than an animal as a pugc. Subordinatei. Ex: breeds of dogs V. Schemas: representations of a concept stored in memorya. Ex: a schema of what a dog doesb. Used to guide behavior and interpret new situations VI. Problem-solving: Algorithmsa. Step-by-step approach that leads to a solutioni. Ex: utility theory1. What we think the outcome should be and use that to select the best outcomeb. Well-structured vs. ill-structured problemsi. We used intuitionVII. Problem-solving: Heuristicsa. Quick method to try and solve problemsb. Much faster than using algorithmc. Does not include as much informationd. Can lead us in the wrong directione. Availabilityi. Things we remember ii. Ex: sharks are dangerous; we know they are dangerous, so we don’t go near them f. Representativei. Stereotypingii. Ex: body characteristics lead some to lump someone into a categoryiii. A tall thin male is probably a basketball playerg. Recognitioni. Higher value on thingsh. Effecti. Gut reaction to thingsii. Depends on the contextVIII. Barriers to problem solvinga. Function fixedness:i. Ex: table, lit candle, and tacksii. Focusing only on resources we think we have, and not thinking outside the boxb. Framing:i. How a problem or scenario is phrased, changing how you solve somethingc. Mental set:i. Nothing changes the way you see/solve a problemIX. Creativitya. Combining elements in new and useful waysb. Divergent thinking abilities c. The more ideas you can come up with i. Ex: how many different ways can you use a pen?d. People are working on increasing creativityX. Language a. System of connecting thoughts and feelings using signalsb. Way to connect with others through time and spacec. Can help use with problem solving/decision makingd. Important for our history/keeping recordse. Learning and how we developXI. The evolution of Languagea. Tracing the roots of languageb. We think Africa was probably the first source of human languages c. We have endangered languagesi. Many are eventually going to disappear XII. Building blocks of languagea. Phonemes: smallest unit of sounds that effects the meaning of speech i. Changing one letterb. Morphemes: smallest unit of language that has meaningi. Ex: dog, runii. Prefixes and suffixesiii. Past tense (-ed)iv. Words are made up of at least one of morphemesc. Syntax: forming sentencesi. Adjective ii. Forming sentences d. Semantics: the meaning of a sentence i. Can have a surface meaning, and deeper meaning in the same sentencee. Surface and deep structures: two or more meanings i. Ex: the phrase, ‘this is my old friend’, may have two meanings XIII. Language: Aphasiaa. An impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area or to Wernicke’s areaXIV. The biology of languagea. Broca’s: you have a problem with the language/pronouncing b. Wernicke’s: you have a problem with the meaning/understandingXV. Animal communicationa. Communication vs. language b. Studied using apes and chimps mainly c. Debate on animals picking up