o o o o o o o o o o o Solution A liquid homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Solvent The dissolving agent Solute The substance that is dissolved Aqueous solution H2O is the solvent Emergent Properties Properties not predicted from the individual parts appear at successive levels of biological organization due to complex arrangement and interactions Element Substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reaction 92 naturally occurring 4 most common elements in living systems in order Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Isotopes Two atoms o the same element having the same atomic number but different mass numbers Stable Isotopes Most isotopes are stable and do not tend to loose particles 12C and 13C Radioactive Isotopes Nuclei of some isotopes are unstable and decay spontaneously emitting particles and energy 14C Used in PET scans Double Covalent Bond Double Bond Sharing of two pairs of valence electrons 4 e Ex O2 Heat A measure of total kinetic energy due to molecular motion Chemical Equilibrium Rate of product formation is the same as rate of product breakdown Hydrogen Bond Hydrogen atom H that is covalently bonded to a strongly electronegative atom Temperature Intensity of heat due to average kinetic energy of molecules Hydrophilic A substance that has affinity for water water loving Hydrophobic Substances that have no affinity for water water hating Acid Increases hydrogen ion concentration H in a solution Ex Hydrochloric Acid HCl Base Decreases hydrogen ion concentration H in a solution Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms Ex Sodium Hydroxide NaOH Neutral solution has a pH of 7 Function Groups Chemical groups that replace one or more H atoms of the carbon skeleton of a hydrocarbon Seven Function Groups Six are hydrophilic Weak Interactions Hydroxyl group OH Ionic Hydrogen Carbonyl group C O Van Der Waals Ketone Carbonyl group is not on the end Aldehyde Carbonyl group is on the end Carboxyl group COOH Carboxylic Acids Compounds with carboxyl groups Amino group NH2 Amines Organic compounds with amino groups Sulfhydryl group SH Anion with two negative charges Thiols Organic molecules with sulfhydryl groups Phosphate group OPO32 Also ATP o Methyl group CH3 Methylated Compounds Organic molecules with methyl groups NON POLAR NOT hydrophilic Macromolecules Carbohydrates Include both sugars and polymers Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids Polymers Many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds Three of the four classes of macromolecules are polymers Monomers The repeated units in polymers building blocks Glucose is the primaey monomer used in polysaccharides Polymer Synthesis Building polymer Condensation Reaction Dehydration Reaction Covalent addition of monomers to polymers requires energy aided by enzymes Hydrolysis Break down of polymer removal of monomer from polymer Monosaccharide Simplest carbohydrates or simple sugars Major fuel for cellular work Disaccharides Double sugars two monosaccharide joined by a condensation reaction Glycosidic linkage o Maltose Two glucose Sucrose Glucose Fructose Polysaccharides Polymers of monosaccharide 100s to 1000s Building material for cells or whole organisms Cellulose Polysaccharide of glucose monomers major component of the tough wall of plant cells Chitin Modified side group arthropod exoskeleton used for strong flexible surgical thread Glycogen Storage polysaccharide in animals Has 1 4 linkages Disulfide Bridge Two Highly branched like amylopectin sulfides bonded together Starch Storage polysaccharide in plants Amylose unbranched forms a helix Amylopectin branched branches are not 1 4 linkages Amino acids Building blocks of polypeptides N Terminus Amino acid at one end of polypeptide Free amino group NH3 C Terminus Amino acid at other end Free carboxyl group COO Protein One or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific conformation structure Lipids Not polymers hydrophobic Ester Linkage Bond between hydroxyl and carboxyl groups Triacylglycerol Three fatty acids joined to glycerol by ester linkages Fatty Acids Vary in number of carbons Saturated Fatty Acids No C C double bonds hydrogen at every possible position straight chain solid at room temperature Transthyretin protein four identical polypeptides Chaperonin Refolds denatured proteins o o o o o o o o o o o o Lateral movements of phospholipids are rapid Phospholipids Glycerol 2 fatty acids phosphate group negatively charged function groups Unsaturated Fatty Acids One or more C C double bonds formed by removal of H atoms from the carbon skeleton Kinked structure at double bond liquid at room temperature better for cardiovascular health Lipid Bilayer Arrangement of membrane phospholipids Hydrophobic tails form core hydrophilic heads on outside Cholesterol Affects membrane fluidity restrains movement of phospholipids and prevents tight packing Steroids Lipids with a carbon skeleton consisting of four 4 fused carbon rings Plasma Membrane Separates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings Selective Permeability Membranes allow some substances to cross more easily than others Peripheral Proteins Not embedded in lipid bilayer hydrophilic loosely bound surface often connected to other membrane proteins Integral Proteins Penetrate hydrophobic core of bilayer hydrophilic at surface hydrophobic in membrane core transmembrane protein completely spans membrane Fluid Mosaic Model Hydrophilic regions of proteins and phospholipids in maximum contact with water hydrophobic regions in a nonaqueous environment Singer and Nicolson Metabolic Pathway Alteration of molecules in steps pathways drives anabolic pathways Catabolic Pathways Breakdown of complex molecules release energy Anabolic Pathways Build complex molecules consume energy Energy released by catabolic Thermodynamics Study of energy transformations First Law Energy can be transferred or transformed but cannot be created or destroyed Second Law Every energy transfer or transformation increases the disorder entropy of the universe Entropy A measure of disorder or randomness Formula for free energy change G G H T S Fibrin is the When G 0 a cell is considered dead strongest part of Three structural parts to ATP phosphate ribose and adenine the clot Endergonic G 0 Exergonic G 0 Equilibrium G 0 Osmosis Diffusion of water across a semi permeable membrane Molecules can move against their concentration gradient in active transport Hypotonic Lysed Isotonic Normal
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