PrecisionTheoriesOrganized systems of assumptions that purport to explain phenomena and their interrelationshipsHypothesesAttempt to predict or account for a set of phenomena; specify relationships among variables and are empirically testedOperational DefinitionsSpecify how the phenomena in question are to be observed or measuredSkepticismScientists do not accept ideas on faith or authoritySkepticism means treating conclusions, both old and new with cautionReliance on Empirical EvidenceA scientist relies on empirical evidence to determine whether a hypothesis is true. Empiricism – data collected through observationsWillingness to make Risky PredictionsPrinciple of falsifiabilityA scientific theory must make predictions specific enough to confirm and/or disconfirm the theoryThe theory must predict not only what will happen, but also what will not happenConfirmation BiasTendency to look for or attend to only information that confirms one’s own belief.The Scientific MethodResearchers in psychology use the scientific method when conducting research. The scientific method follows the following five steps1. Observing some phenomenon2. Formulating Hypothesis and Prediction – an idea arrived at logically from a theory3. Testing Through Empirical Research4. Drawing Conclusions5. Evaluating ConclusionsDescriptive MethodsMethods that yield descriptions of behavior.IncludeCase Studies – Genie the Wild ChildObservational studiesPsychological testsSurveysCase StudiesA detailed description of a particular individual being studied. We will be studying the case of Genie the Wild Child. A great deal of the research for this case was done by Susan CurtissObservational StudiesResearchers carefully and systematically observe and record behavior without interfering with behaviorNaturalistic ObservationPurpose is to observe how the people or animals behave in their natural environmentsLaboratory ObservationPurpose is to observe how people or animals behave in a controlled settingPsychological TestsProcedures used to measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and valuesCan be objective (rank of scale how you feel) or projective (ink blots)Characteristics of a good test includeStandardization – what the results look like, want to give measures in consistent settingsReliability – when taking a test over and over, you’re getting the same resultsValidity – when taking a test over and over until you get what you actually wanted to testSurveysQuestionnaires and interviews that ask people about experiences, attitudes or opinionsRequires a representative sampleGroup of subjects, selected from the population for study, which matches the population on important characteristics such as age and sex.Correlational ResearchCorrelational research is conducted when studies are concerned with identifying the relationships between two or more variables so that it can be understood how the variables change together.In a correlational study the variables are measured by the researcher to see how they relateCorrelational studies can take place anywhere, whether it is in the classroom, out in the real world or in a laboratoryAn ExperimentA controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another.An experiment includes variables of interest, control conditions, and random assignment.Variables of InterestIndependent VariablesVariables the experimenter manipulatesDependent VariablesVariables the Experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable(s)The Ethics of Studying HumansInformed Consent – prospective participants should receive enough information to let them decide freely whether to participateFreedom to Withdraw at any timeMinimize DiscomfortKeep data confidentialIf deception is necessary, debriefing must occurThe Ethics of Studying AnimalsAnimals have always been used in a small percentage of psychological studiesTo conduct basic researchTo discover practical applicationsTo study issues that cannot be studied experimentally using human beingsTo clarify theoretical questionsTo improve human welfareWhat did you feel was unethical about the research that was done on Genie?Background -Tied to a potty chair, locked in her room. Thirteen year-old girl with infant capabilitiesHighly unethical to be emotionally attached to a patient.Can’t be a parent and a doctorShould have stopped being his therapist and became a full time foster parent.Boundaries have to be setGiven back to live with her mother at one point, who then couldn’t take it anymoreExploited in publicationsConstantly being moved, being driven from one house to anotherWhat makes people human? Is there a period where you reached your limit for being able to speak/learn linguistics?She was able to learn sign language and spoken languageShe was never able to form grammar correctlyNever was able to formulate a question1970- Wild Child FoundGenie’s mom, at 50, ran away from home/her 70 year-old husbandGenie weighed 59 pounds going into puberty. Social services call police and sent to Children’s Hospital. Mother was not charged with Child AbuseOn the day he was supposed to go to court, he shot and killed himself.He left a note saying: The World will never understand.Genie’s father apparently hated children, and had 4 kids.First Child - An earlier baby girl was born, the father put her in the garage because he couldn’t stand the crying. Died at 2 ½ months oldSecond Child – Died two days after birth allegedly from choking on their own mucusThird Child – Boy, lived with Genie’s father’s mother. Grandmother killed by an ice cream truck. Father blamed the little boy, and came to live with them. The father would sit in the living room with a riffle, and make the wife and kid sleep on the floor. The little boy was told to feed Genie with baby food and milk, but he wasn’t allowed to speak to her. She never learned how to chew. She sat on the potty seat, if she made noise, her father would beat her. At night he created a chicken coop, and she would sleep there. She never learned how to walk or stand up right.When she came to the hospital she was a “Pitiful, Malformed, unsocialized creature”When she got anxious, she would sit on the floor and pee.Susan came and began to take Genie out in the world. She would go into grocery stores and the outside, ring people’s doorbells, and waived.Read: Body