How to studyGoal: explain the relationships between termsThese are concepts.Binary Fission is a type of Asexual reproduction.Study like you’re studying for a short answer test.DNA controls functions of the cell using RNA as “employees”Transcription: Making RNA from DNA (like training your employees)Translation: Making proteins from RNA.If RNA only makes proteins, how do other biological molecules get made?The proteins direct the synthesis of the other molecules.AnalogyDNALike superintendent of schoolsRNALike the school principalsProteinsLike the classroom teachersCarbs, Lipids, Nucleic AcidLike the studentsGene expression, the production of proteins, is regulated in several ways.Gene regulation is the process of turning genes on and off.Different cell types express different genesFor example, not all cells need lactaseIn what cell types would you expect lactase gene expression?In the lining of the small intestine.X chromosome inactivation is an extreme case of gene regulationIn female mammals one X chromosome in each body cell is highly compacted and almost entirely inactive.Gene Regulation is one wy to determine which proteins are produced by a cell.There are several points along the path from DNA to protein that can be regulated.Special transcription factors must bind to DNA to “turn on” transcriptionAfter Transcription, the RNA may be altered in several ways (gene regulation)Before leaving the nucleus, the RNA is modified:A cap and tail are addedNon-coding introns may be removedProtein-coding exons may be rearranged.Translation offers more opportunities for gene regulationThe cell can control the following:Whether translation proceedsHow proteins are modified after translationWhen proteins are broken downCell-to-cell communication can control gene expressionMulticellular life depends on cell-to-cell signalingMolecules exit one cell and bind to a receptor protein on the outside of another cellThis binding triggers a signal transduction pathway.A signal from another cell can regulate genes (turn on or off) in the receiving cellCell to cell communication is particularly important in a developing embryoDevelopment involves frequent cell division (to increase body size) that must be carefully coordinatedInductive signals can cause cells to change shape, migrate, or even destroyed other cellsHomeotic genes are master control genes; they direct the location of the head and body parts.Mutations in regulator genes can lead to an overgrowth of cellsA mutated proto-oncogene fails to regulate cell division and is called an oncogene.Cancer is caused by the out of control cell growth due to a breakdown of the cell cycle control system.Cancer can occur when proto-oncogenes are mutated to oncogenesA mutation in a growth factor gene can produce a hyperactive protein that promotes unnecessary cell divisionA mutation that deactivates a tumor suppressor gene may result in uncontrolled growth.Mutations may result in proteins that either don’t stop the cell cycle or stimulate growth.The importance of TelomeresTelomeres allow replication of DNA without loss of genes.Telomeres keep the ends of the chromosomes from sticking together or being damaged.In young cells, an enzyme called telomerase adds material to the ends of telomeres. As cells divide may times, there is not enough telomerase produced to add the telomeres.Lack of telomerase.Causes of AgingTelomere shorteningChromosomes lose telomeres over timeChronological ageRisk factors increase over timeOxidative stressOxidants damage DNA, proteins and lipids.GlycationGlucose sugar binds to and inhibits DNA proteins and lipids.Telomerase and cancerMany cancers have shortened telomeresMeasuring telomerase may be a way to detect cancer.They might be able to fight cancer by making cancer cells age and die.There are risks, Blocking telomerase could impair fertility, wound healing, and production of blood cells and immune system cells.EpigenomeWe are a product of both our genes and our environmentWhat are ways your physical or behavioral traits might be influenced by your genes, your environment or both?Importance of epigeneticsThe epigenome twists and untwists itself to make genes available for transcription.The structure of the epigenome shapes the entire body.Environmental factors determine how the epigenome is twisted.Epigenetic tags attach for the life of a cell to continue to tell the cell what its function is. These tags are copied during cell division.BIO 101 1nd Edition Lecture 19 Outline of Last Lecture II. CellsIII. The cell cycleIV. Mitotic phaseV. Asexual reproductionVI. TelomeresVII. MeiosisOutline of Current Lecture VIII. Gene expressionIX. Inactivation of chromosomesX. TranslationXI. Cell-to-cell communicationXII. MutationsXIII. CancerXIV.TelomeresXV. EpigeneticsCurrent Lecture How to study- Goal: explain the relationships between terms- These are concepts.- Binary Fission is a type of Asexual reproduction.- Study like you’re studying for a short answer test. DNA controls functions of the cell using RNA as “employees”- Transcription: Making RNA from DNA (like training your employees)- Translation: Making proteins from RNA.- If RNA only makes proteins, how do other biological molecules get made?o The proteins direct the synthesis of the other molecules. These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute. Analogy- DNAo Like superintendent of schools- RNAo Like the school principals- Proteinso Like the classroom teachers- Carbs, Lipids, Nucleic Acido Like the students Gene expression, the production of proteins, is regulated in several ways.- Gene regulation is the process of turning genes on and off.- Different cell types express different geneso For example, not all cells need lactase - In what cell types would you expect lactase gene expression?o In the lining of the small intestine. X chromosome inactivation is an extreme case of gene regulation- In female mammals one X chromosome in each body cell is highly compacted and almost entirely inactive. Gene Regulation is one wy to determine which proteins are produced by a cell.  There are several points along the path from DNA to protein that can be regulated.- Special transcription factors must bind to DNA to “turn on” transcription After Transcription, the RNA may be altered in several ways (gene regulation)- Before