Ch 1 Mikayla Rosencrans Biology the study of living things Insects entomology DNA genomics Elephant zoology Microorganism microbiology Snake herpertology Cells tissue histology Scientific method scientists use this observe ask questions formulate and test hypotheses happen Null hypothesis no significant difference among data what s not going to Positive control always gives consistent data Negative control doesn t give you a positive result Independent variable manipulating variable Dependent variable measuring variable Life Energy utilization Made up of cells Info processing Replication Evolution The cell theory all cells come from cells cells are basic structural and physiological units of all living organisms building blocks of life Spontaneous generation hypothesis cells come from no where All cells from cell hypothesis cells come from preexisting cells Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Buffon earth is older than ever belived Cuvier extinction occurred documented fossils Lamark living species might change over time Lyell geological forves gradually shaped earth still do so Darwin orgin of species Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection o Species are related by common ancestry Natural selection individuals in a population vary in characteristics that are heritable Adaptions characteristics that increase fitness Certain versions of heritable traits help individuals survive better and reproduce more than others fitness Natural selection acts on individuals Evolutionary change occurs in populations Artificial selection done by humans certain trait that we are selecting for Woese tree of life Biological Nomenclature Taxonomy classification of organisms Binomial Species Hierarchal categorization based on evolutionary relationship domain kingdom phylum class order family genus ch 2 How life began Mikayla Rosencrans Spontaneous generation must have occurred once Pattern observation atoms molecules complex molecules Process testing it energy 96 or organic matter consists of O N C H an atom is electrically neutral when the electrons the of protons non neutral atoms are called ions electrons move around nucleus in specific orbitals s p d f 1st orbital 2 electrons 2nd orbital 8 electrons elements are defined by the of protons when you change protons you get a different element when you change nuetrons you get an isotope Isotope same protons different nuetrons Used in PET scans medical imaging Atoms of Life Cl traffic in membrane in cell S disulfide bridges Mg bones P DNA Na important for human body muscle contraction propagation of nucleus An atom is most stable when its valence shell is filled Chemical Bonding Covalent bond results from electron sharing orbital overlap o Polar covalent unenven unequal sharing of electrons o Polar covalent equal sharing of electrons Ionic Bonding results from transfer of electrons between 2 atoms Polarity Electronegativity O N C H Law of Conservation of Mass mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction Geometry of Simple molecules Tetrahedral shape bent shape linear ect Basics of Chemical Reactions Mole 6 022 x 10 23 Water 18 02 g mol Molarity mol L Water Hydrogen bond electrostatic attraction between molecules o H bonded with F N O Hydrophilic like dissolves like polar dissolves polar Hydrophobic polar will NOT dissolve nonopolar Properties molecule o Structure small bent shape polar covalent bonds polar o Function cohesion adhesion surface tension density of water high specific heat Cohesion attraction between like molecules Adheasion attraction between two different molecules Surface tension strength of molecules on surface Water is more dense as a liquid because the molecules are closer together Water acts as a weak acid and a weak base Equilibrium reaction Acid proton donor Base proton acceptor pH log H measures concentration of protons H in a solution a substance with a pH of 9 is 10x as basic as a substance with a pH of 8 pH is 10x as you move up the scale periodic trends atomic size increases down and to the left electronegativity increases up and to the right ionization energy increases up and to the right specific heat the amount of energy required to raise 1gram of it by 1oC the temperature on the planet does not change a lot b w day night chemical equilibrium rate from L to R is R to L balanced chemical reaction L and R are even endothermic gains heat ex Boiling water exothermic gives of heat ex Condensation Energy ability to do work or to change Transformation of energy is a hallmark of life Two types potential energy stored energy kinetic energy energy if motion First Law of Thermodynamics energy is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction energy before energy after Second Law of thermodynamics when energy is converted from one form to another some of that energy becomes unavailable to do work Entropy unavailable Energy in an enclosed system amount of disorder Gibbs Free Energy o G H T S G 0 free energy released exergonic spontaneous G 0 free energy consumed endergoinic nonspontaneous G 0 chemical reaction is at equilibrium Implications of second law of thermodynamics o Disorder tends to increase because of energy transformations o Living organisms must have a constant supply of energy to maintain order Spontaneous process results in lower potential energy increase disorder higher entropy or both Increased temperature speeds up a reaction Increased concentration of reactants speed up a chemical reaction Functional Groups Amino NH2 amines acts as a base attracts protons Carbonyl CH2 aldehydes ketones react with certain compounds to produce larger molecule with form Carboxyl CHO2 carboxylic acids acts as an acid Hydroxyl OH alcohols acts as a weak acid and drop a proton Phosphate PO4 organic phosphates carry 2 charges change in charge affects recipient molecules Sulfhydryl SH thiols can form disulfide S S bonds that contribute to protein structure ch 3 Mikayla Rosencrans In the case of chemical evolution the pattern that is increasingly complex carbon containing molecules formed in the atmosphere and ocean of ancient Earth The process responsible for this pattern was the conversion of energy from sunlight and other sources into chemical energy in the bonds of large complex molecules Chemical Evolution began with the production of small organic compounds such as formaldehyde H2CO and hydrogen cyanide HCN from reactants such H2 CO2 CH4 and NH3 Formaldehyde hydrogen cyanide and other simple organic