PSYCH 2410 1st Edition Exam # 3 Study Guide Lectures: 13-18Lecture 13- Conceptual and Symbolic Development; Magical Thinking and FantasyI. Conceptual Development- Concepts: general dieas or understandings that can be used to group together similar things (functions, objects, events, properties)o help to simplify the world and think more efficientlyo provide organized thought and help us to thin more efficiently - Infants begin to form categories at 3-4 months - By 1.5-2 years they begin to form conceptual categories (match action to picture)- Category Hierarchies-superordinate (most general), basic, subordinate (most specific)o Form basic categories first II. Symbolic Development- DeLoache Studies showed that 24 month year olds make scale errors (would sit in tiny chairs)- Scale models with big and small rooms, 3 year olds pass, 2.5 year olds fail- Both 2.5 year olds and 3 year olds pass 2D pictures o Pointing shows they understand 2D is a symbol- Dual Representation: being able to understand symbols are both real objects and symbols at the same time- If experimenters use a “shrinking” ray for big and small rooms even 2.5 year lds can passo Removes dual representationIII. Pretend Play- Pretend play: make-believe activities which children create new symbolic relationso Emerges at 18 months- Object substitution: child substitutes one object for another (toothbrush=wand)- Sociodramatic play: children enact minidramas (2.5-3 years)o These children have greater understanding of others’ thoughts, are more popular, and are more socially skilledIV. Imaginary Companions- 50-65% of children have imaginary companions (invisible or personified object)- Methods in studying imaginary companions:o Parental reports: quick and cheap; parent doesn’t always know about themo Child interviews: more accurate; difficult to discuss, time intensiveo Retrospective reports: memory loss/distortionLecture 14- Theory of MindI. Development of Theory of Mind- Theory of Mind: ability to understand that others have beliefs and desires that are different from one’s own- Our behavior depends both on our beliefs and desires or goals- Child must think about others’ beliefs and desires or goalsII. Assessing Theory of Mind- False-Belief Test with Sally and Anne (refer to slides)o 3 year olds fail, 4 year olds pass some believe saying the correct answer is too hard, children can misunderstand the question, children cannot articulate false belief- Non-verbal false belief tasko Method: 15 mo, violation of expectationo Results: 15mos passo Conclusion: children come to have a theory of mind earlier ages than initially thoughtIII. Reasoning about others’ goals- Interpreting actions as goal-directed o Method: 6-9mos, violation of expectation o Infants expect hand to reach for the same toy it has been (goal), surprised when it doesn’t- 12mos understand finger pointing means desire- Predict action from gaze and emotional expressiono Method: 8-12mos, person looks and smiles at one kitteno 12mos Shocked when expectation is violatedLecture 15- Eyewitness TestimonyI. Suggestibility- More than 100,000 children testify in court every year (40% under 5)- Testimony relies on autobiographical memory o This memory is imperfect and malleable at all ages- Loftus experiment o Method: watched a movie of crash involving cars, there was no broken headlight;asked “did you see a broken headlight” vs “did you see the broken headlight”o Results: if asked second question they are more likely to say yes o Conclusion: it is easy to be susceptible toe suggestionII. Interviewer Bias- Interviewer has preconceived beliefs about what happenedo Asks leading questionso Fails to ask questions that explore alternative hypotheseso Confirmation bias- Thompson experimento Method: the kids see the janitor either cleaning toys or playing with toys in a room. Either an accusatory interviewer (biased against Chester), exculpatory interviewer (likes Chester), or neutral interviewer. o Results: Actual behavior cleaning- A=playing, E=cleaning, N=cleaning. Actual behavior playing- A=playing, E=cleaning, N=playing. III. Stereotypes - Children’s previous knowledge of the protagonist might affect their memory for the events- Sam Stone Study o Method: kids are told that Sam Stone is a clumsy guy to implant a stereotype. When Sam visits there are no incidents.o Results: several weeks later kids are interviewed. No stereotype= no mischievous behavior by Sam Stone. Stereotype= Sam Stone engaged in mischievous behavior. Younger are more susceptibleo Professionals observed the children being interviewed and asked to rate children’s credibility. The most accurate children were rated as least credible and the least accurate children were rated as most credible. IV. Questioning- Specific questions: Where did he touch you? Did he touch you on your face/body?o Children are less accurate on the specific questions- Forced-choice questions: “did he touch your ears or your nose?”o Children don’t often say I don’t know or none of the above- Repeated Specific Questions: kids watched an ambiguous event and questioned about ito Ex: Did the man hit the woman? 40% changed their stories- Repeated Interviews: children get 10 interviews before courto False narratives become more convincingo Many studies show that adults cannot tell apart true from false memories reported by children- Symbolic Tools: use of anatomically correct dollso Kids struggle with dual representationSUMMARY:- Do not repeat yes or no specific questions- Reduce number of interviews- Interview children soon after the event- Use unbiased interviewers- Avoid biased questioning- Interviewers should: be patient, non-judgemental, not offer rewards for answers or make accusationsLecture 16- Theories of Social DevelopmentI. Sigmund Freud- Theory of Psychosexual Development: behavior motivated by need to satisfy basic biological drives; emphasis on nature with individual differences being because of nurture- Id: present from birth, pleasure principle that wanted immediate gratification- Ego: emerges in first year, reality principle, balance unconscious with desires- Superego: emerges between 3-6 years, conscience that enables one to control behavior- Five Stages of Freud’s Theory:o Oral: first year, basic needs met by oral stimulationo Anal: second year, pleasure derived from anal elimination o Phallic: 3-6yrs, children become interested in