Chapter: Chapter 12: Deductive Reasoning and Decision MakingMultiple Choice1. A major way in which tasks requiring decision making differ from tasks requiring deductive reasoningis that the former kind of situation:a) is much more ambiguous. b) cannot be handled by using heuristics. c) is much less common in real life. d) All of the above are correct. Ans: aFeedback: See page 4092. In the dual-process theory of problem solving,a) Type 1 processing is slow and deliberate.b) Type 2 processing is slow and deliberate.c) Type 1 processing requires little conscious attention.d) Type 2 processing is always preferred over Type 1 processing.Ans: cFeedback: See pages 409 – 4103. Consider the following reasoning: "If Frank's car started, then he went to town. Frank's car did not start. Therefore, Frank did not go to town." What kind of reasoning is this?a) categorical reasoning. b) conditional reasoning. c) probabilistic reasoning. d) analogical reasoning. Ans: bFeedback: See page 4104. Consider the following reasoning: "If Frank's car started, then he went to town. Frank's car did not start. Therefore, Frank did not go to town." Many people will accept the conclusion as being logical because they committed an error called:a) affirming the antecedent. b) affirming the consequent. c) denying the antecedent. d) denying the consequent. Ans: cFeedback: See pages 411-4125. Consider the following reasoning: "All animals that eat burritos have hair. Some birds eat burritos. Therefore, some birds have hair." This is an example of:a) a syllogism. b) conditional reasoning. c) the propositional calculus.d) an illusory correlation. Ans: aFeedback: See page 4106. Research on human reasoning reveals that a person may have relatively more difficulty (i.e., make more reasoning errors) if the premises, the conclusion, or both:a) contain negatively worded, rather than positively worded, information. b) are consistent with the person's beliefs or with "common sense." c) contain abstract, rather than concrete, information. d) All of the above are correct. Ans: dFeedback: See pages 414 - 4167. Our problem-solving ability is biased, as described by a) the belief-bias effect.b) the confirmation-bias effect.c) Neither effect; our problem-solving is without bias.d) Both the belief-bias and the confirmation- bias effects.Ans: dFeedback: See pages 415 – 4168. Research using the four-card selection task (Wason, 1968) suggests that most people:a) form a mental model of the antecedent and consequent. b) have limited knowledge of the mathematics of permutations and combinations. c) try to confirm instead a hypothesis instead of to disprove it. d) rely on their everyday knowledge and usually reason successfully. Ans: cFeedback: See pages 416 - 4179. According to some evolutionary psychologists (e.g., Cosmides & Tooby, 2006), people often reason very well in situations that:a) are necessary for cooperative interactions in a society (e.g., catch a cheater). b) are characterized by a lot of ambiguity (e.g., uncertainty about strangers on the street). a) are like those experienced in early childhood (e.g., encounters with relatives). d) cause a person to be highly aroused, excited, or emotional (e.g., an emergency). Ans: aFeedback: See page 41810. A confirmation bias may operate in international politics when Country A (e.g., the United States) seeks support for its position that it should attack Country B (e.g., Iraq). One way to avoid this bias (according to Myers, 2002) is for:a) Country A to try sincerely to construct arguments against attacking Country B. b) Country B to convince Country A that the representativeness heuristic applies in this situation. c) Country A to seek additional countries that support its position before attackingCountry B. d) the leader of Country A to discuss the situation with experts to whom he or she has appointed to a high-level office. Ans: aFeedback: See page 41811. Heuristics are:a) identical to algorithms in that they guarantee a correct solution or decision. b) general, rational strategies that often produce a correct solution or decision. c) decision-making strategies that have been shown to be useless and unproductive. d) strategies in which a decision is based on the difficulty of retrieving information from memory. Ans: bFeedback: See page 42012. With the representativeness heuristic, wea) judge a sample to be more likely if it is similar to the population from which it was selected.b) judge a sample to be more likely if it is drawn from a large population.c) judge a sample to be more likely if it has a lower base rate.d) judge a sample to be more likely if base rate and sample size information is available.Ans: aFeedback: See pages 421 – 42313. When people use the representativeness heuristic, they:a) make a judgment based on similarity. b) suffer from the large-sample fallacy. c) place too much emphasis on base rates. d) make a judgment based on ease of retrieval from memory. Ans: aFeedback: See pages 421 - 42214. When people are presented salient information, even if it is almost entirely worthless (as in the example of Tom W., the graduate student), they usually tend to judge the likelihood of something relatedto that information by:a) using a rule on how to revise a probability estimate when they are provided some evidence. b) focusing mainly on base-rate information and neglecting the presented information. c) focusing mainly on the presented information and neglecting base-rate information. d) relying on the gambler's fallacy to estimate the probability. Ans: cFeedback: See pages 423 - 42415. When people use the availability heuristic, they:a) make a judgment based on similarity. b) suffer from the large-sample fallacy. c) place too much emphasis on base rates.d) make a judgment based on ease of retrieval from memory. Ans: dFeedback: See page 42716. The availability heuristic can be biased by a) recency.b) familiarity.c) base rate information.d) Both recency and familiarity.Ans: dFeedback: See pages 427 – 42817. One important factor that sometimes leads to distortions in frequency estimates based on the availability heuristic is:a) the amount of media coverage of a topic. b) whether or not the event is random in nature. c) how much money has been spent on a project. d) the propositional calculus in estimation. Ans: aFeedback: See page 42918. The beliefs that gay people tend to have psychological problems, that blondes tend not to be very intelligent, and that