Chapter: Chapter 11: Problem Solving and CreativityMultiple Choice1. Which of the following is a component of every problem you need to solve?a) the initial stateb) the goal statec) obstaclesd) All are part of every problem.Ans: dFeedback: See page 3702. Cognitive psychologists distinguish problem solving from other kinds of thinking because the study of problem solving focuses on how people:a) combine two or more propositions in an attempt to reach a valid conclusion. b) decide between two or more alternative courses of action, choices, or behaviors. c) encounter and remove obstacles between an initial state and a goal state. d) analyze and solve difficulties in mathematical, logical, and analytical domains. Ans: cFeedback: See page 3713. The first step in problem solving is toa) understand the problem.b) consider your past experiences.c) collect all the relevant information.d) think about possible solutions.Ans: aFeedback: See page 3724. The first step in problem solving involves:a) activating trial-and-error solutions to the problem. b) constructing a mental representation of the problem. c) conducting a means-end analysis of the problem. d) engaging in analogical thinking about the problem. Ans: bFeedback: See page 3725. Ways to represent the problem includea) symbols.b) matrices.c) diagrams.d) All of the above are ways to represent a problem.Ans: dFeedback: See pages 374 - 3766. Using symbols, matrices, diagrams, and visual images are among the most effective methods of:a) representing a problem. b) applying a problem-solving algorithm. c) using the means-end heuristic. d) deciding among alternative solutions to a problem. Ans: aFeedback: See pages 374 - 3787. Supporters of a situated-cognition approach argue that a person's ability to solve a problem is closely linked to the:a) inborn ability that all people have in transferring problem-solving skills from one domain to another. b) natural tendency of most people to use various heuristics in a variety of problem domains. c) failure to find effects of ecological validity on his or her solutions to a problem. d) specific context in which he or she learned to solve that kind of problem. Ans: dFeedback: See page 3788. A method that is guaranteed to produce a solution to a problem (although the process may be inefficient) is called:a) a means-end analysis. b) an algorithm. c) a heuristic. d) a serendipity. Ans: bFeedback: See page 3809. A problem-solving strategy in which a person ignores some alternatives and only explores those that are most likely to produce a solution is called:a) a means-end analysis. b) an algorithm. c) a heuristic. d) a serendipity. Ans: cFeedback: See page 38110. A barrier to the use of an analogy approach to problem solving is that people tend to:a) tend to see analogies in many problems, even when the analogies are inappropriate. b) quickly realize that they often have to move away from the goal state in order to arrive at it. c) use trial-and-error even after being trained to sort problems into categories based on structural similarities. d) focus more on the superficial content of a problem than on its abstract, underlying meanings. Ans: dFeedback: See page 38311. A problem-solver divided a problem into several subproblems, and then he tried to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the subproblems. Which strategy he use?a) trial-and-error b) means-end analysis c) hill-climbing d) analogy Ans: bFeedback: See pages 383 - 38412. Research on problems such as the Elves-and-Goblins problem reveals that people:a) are reluctant to move away from the goal state—that is, move backwards temporarily. b) usually to try to solve a problem by means of analogy—that is, apply an algorithm. c) often employ a computer simulation approach—that is, use trial-and-error. d) tend to use an efficient expert strategy in many domains—that is, use serial, top-down processing. Ans: aFeedback: See page 38413. A recent (2007) study of university students in the United States, Brazil, and India revealed that the students:a) reported slightly different frequencies of use of analogy, means-end, and free-production strategies. b) rated various problem-solving strategies differently in terms of their effectiveness. c) agreed that the analogy problem-solving method is the easiest to apply. d) typically chose the analogy strategy for solving problems. Ans: dFeedback: See page 38114. Compared with novices, experts generally havea) at least ten years experience.b) better overall memory.c) greater probability of using parallel processing.d) All of the above are correct.Ans: cFeedback: See pages 387 – 38915. Research suggests that a person's performance on a test requiring problem solving, such as the mathematics portion of the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) might:a) not be improved by cognitive coaching programs, contrary to the claims of the corporation that administers the test. b) improve as a result of heightened arousal that results from a stereotype threat. c) reveal important information about a person's personality, adjustment, and general problem-solving abilities. d) suffer if the person is a member of a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype, such as women.Ans: dFeedback: See page 39216. Concerning problem-solving performance, recent research reveals that the stereotype threat:a) mainly affects the performance of adults, because the evidence shows that children do not perform significantly worse as a result of it. b) mainly affects the performance of children, because the evidence shows that adults do not perform significantly worse as a result of it. c) can be minimized (and performance improved) if a person is made aware of a link between group membership and poor performance. d) may be heightened (and performance made worse) if a person is made aware of a link between group membership and poor performance. Ans: dFeedback: See page 39217. A distinction can be made between problems that are usually solved gradually and problems that are usually solved suddenly. This distinction is between:a) noninsight problems and insight problems, respectively. b) creative problems and poorly-defined problems, respectively. c) expert problems and novice problems, respectively. d) convergent problems and divergent problems, respectively. Ans: aFeedback: See page 39518. In the process of arriving at a solution to a problem that initially seems difficult, but results in a rather