ANT2301 TEST 2 CHAPTER 5 CONCEALED OVULATION Concealed ovulation the exact timing of female ovulation able to get pregnant is unknown to both the male and female of a species Estrus period of pronounced genital swelling Haselton and Gildersleeve 2011 marked by increases in female sexual behavior and attractiveness at the period of highest fertility just before ovulation Receptivity readiness to copulate when solicited by a male Pawlowski 1999 no difference in receptivity between humans and primates younger males with higher levels of testosterone solicited females more often constant Proceptivity active encouragement and solicitations by females to copulate more limited in primates Attractiveness females become sexually exciting to males during estrus males find females sexually to times during estrus attractive thus initiating copulations Bipedalism ability to walk on two legs because of S shaped vertebrae shorter bowl shaped rotating pelvis angled femurs arched feet and abducted big toe Visual cues by reducing swelling and movement of the genitals the visual cue indicating ovulation estrus is no longer advantageous examples erect penis length vaginal depth Olfactory cues hair loss adaptation for heat loss sweating modern hygiene Singh and Bronstad 2001 males smelled shirts from women when they were and were not ovulating during ovulation the men rated the shirts better smelling and therefore the women more attractive not on contraception Auditory cues women s voices were more attractive when they were ovulating Bryant and Haselton 2009 recorded women saying Hi I m a student at UCLA during fertile and non fertile phases in their cycle Feritle phase rated more attractive Behavioral theories hunters 1 Concealed ovulation reduces male male competition and enhances cooperation among male 2 Concealed ovulation enhances bond between man and woman by making woman continuously receptive proceptive and attractive 3 Concealed estrus may ensure steady food supply male chimps are more likely to share food with females in estrus if males do not know when females are ovulating they may provide more food to win favor 4 Concealed estrus exploits male paranoia over paternity enhances pair bond prevents infanticide 5 Concealed ovulation increases the chances for male paternal care Among the Hadza natural conditions are less hygienic olfactory cues relevant and ovulation may be even more concealed in Hadza everyone smells like smoke Menstrual huts Huaulu horticultural hunter gatherers menstruation pollution males are forbidden to touch look into go into or repair the huts in risk of death Blue dye males are forbidden to approach touch or bring meat into close range of the dye pots women who are menstruating are not allowed close to the dye pots pregnant women are not allowed near in fear that the baby is vulnerable to the dye and will be aborted CHAPTER 6 MATE PREFERENCES Attractiveness facial preferences Penton Voak et al 1999 females preferred more masculine looking males at ovulation but less masculine faces when non fertile females also had a preference towards symmetry during fertile phases Confer et al 2010 women continuously choose facial attractiveness regardless of relationship length men s shift in facial attractiveness versus body attractiveness depends on relationship expectations Olfactory genetics body odor serves as a cue for health ovulating non pill users preferred the scent of symmetrical men Major Histocompatibility Complex MHC MHC genes make the molecules that enable the immune system to recognize invaders Claus Wedekind 1995 experiment female college students not on contraception smelled shirts worn by male students for two nights without deodorant cologne or soap An overwhelming number of women preferred the odors of men with MHCs dissimilar to their own The age factor Men prefer younger women reproduction and women prefer older men resources Buss 1989 Kenrick and Keefe 1992 females consistently preferred married males 4 5 years older males preferred females who were younger Evolutionary explanation women reach their productive peak around the age of 20 which declines thereafter Buunk et al 2001 males preferred mates at the peak of reproductive capability 18 30 for short term relationships or sexual fantasies and older for long term women preferred mates their own age regardless of relationship involevement Sociocultural factors females prefer older higher status males and males prefer younger more attractive females main factor resources Trivers 1985 found that American men that marry during a certain year generally make 50 more money than men who don t Buss 1989 women valued financial prospects around twice as highly as men Status more important than attractiveness Townsend and Levy 1990 photographs of people of high medium and low attractiveness were paired with three levels of occupational status Results physical attraction had some influence but status was able to offset unattractiveness Social dominance surveys consistently show that females prefer males who are socially dominant and have the respect of their peers females would gain direct access to resources and raise their own social status Parenting ability women highly value characteristics such as dependability maturity and emotional stability La Cerra 1994 presented pictures of males in several different conditions with children positive interactions with a small child yielded the most positive reactions Infidelity and chastity chastity is valued highly in most cultures males in all cultures view promiscuity and unfaithfulness as being particularly undesirable in a potential long term partner Homosexual mate preferences greater emphasis on attractiveness than status Burrows 2013 masculine gay men would seek younger partners and feminine gay men wuld seek older partners gender roles Hadza preferences even as males get older they want younger wives CHAPTER 7 ATTRACTIVENESS Fluctuating asymmetry indicates developmental stability in the presence of environmental and genetic challenges and therefore provides a possible indicator of health Thornhill and Gangstead 1994 low FA more symmetrical males report more sexual partners earlier age of first sexual intercourse and have more offspring than high FA men Thornhill et al 1995 women whose partners have low FA report more orgasms than those Grammer and Thornhill 1994 males faces high in symmetry are rated as being more attractive whose partners have high FA dominant