Self-Knowledge: Howe We Come to Understand OurselvesThe Nature of the SelfThe self is composed of our thoughts and beliefs about ourselves. Or what James called the “known” or, more simply, the “me”The self is also the active processor of information, the “knower,” or “I”We refer to known aspect of the self as self conceptContent of the self (our knowledge about who we are), and to the knower aspect of self-awareness (act of thinking about ourselves)Two aspects of the self combine to create a coherent sense of identity:Self is both a book (full of fascinating content collected over time) and the reader of that book (who at any moment can access a specific chapter or add a new one)Studies suggest chimps and orangutans, and possibly dolphins, have a rudimentary/underdeveloped self-conceptRealize that the image in the mirror is themselves and not another animal, and when someone alters their appearance, they recognize that they look different from how they looked beforeSelf-recognition develops at age 2As grow older, this rudimentary self-concept becomes more complexTypically a child’s self-concept is concrete, with references to clear-cut, easily observable characteristics like age, sex, neighborhood, and hobbiesAs we mature, we place less emphasis on physical characteristics and more on psychological states (thoughts/feeligs) and on how other people judge usOrganizational Function of the SelfSelf-Schemas: mental structures that people use to organize their knowledge about themselves and that influence that they notice, think about, and remember about themselvesSelf-reference Effect: the tendency for people to remember information better if they relate it to themselvesThe self regulates behavior, choices, and future plans, much like a corporation’s chief executive officerHumans are the only species that can:Imagine events that have not yet occurredEngage in long-term planningSelf-regulatory resource model: self control is a limited resource, kind of like a muscle that gets tired with frequent use but then rebounds in strengthCultural Differences in Defining the SelfIn Western cultures people have an independent view of the selfA way of defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other peopleWesterners learn toDefine themselves as quite separate from other peopleValue independence and uniquenessIn Asian and non-Western cultures people have an interdependent view of the selfA way of defining oneself in term’s of one’s relationships to other people; recognizing that one’s behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of othersConnectedness and interdependence between people is valuedIndependence and uniqueness are frowned upon*Not every member of each culture has that kind of view; within cultures there are differences in self-concept and these differences are likely to increase as contact between cultures increasesGender Differences in Defining the SelfWomen have more relational interdependence: they focus more on their close relationships, such as how they feel about their spouse or childMen have more collective interdependence: they focus on their memberships in larger groups, such as the fact that they are Americans or they belong to a fraternityStarting in early childhood, American girls are more likely to:Develop intimate friendshipsCooperate with othersFocus their attention on social relationshipsBoys are more likely to focus on their group membershipsWhen considering gender differences must be cautious:The psychological differences between men and women are far fewer than the ways in which they are the sameThere do appear to be differences in the way women and men define themselves in the US: women having a greater sense of relational interdependence than menKnowing Ourselves through IntrospectionIntrospection: the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motivesPeople do not rely on this source of information as often as you might thinkEven when people do introspect, the reasons for their feelings and behavior can be hidden from conscious awarenessFocusing on the Self: Self-Awareness TheorySelf-awareness theory: the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and valuesSometimes people go far in their attempt to escape the selfAlcohol abuse, binge eating, and sexual masochismall are ways of turning off the internal spotlife on oneselfAvoiding negative thoughtsThe fact that people regularly engage in such dangerous behaviors, despite their risks, is an indication of how aversive self-focus can beSelf-focus is not always damaging or aversiveIf you have just experienced a major success, focusing on yourself can be pleasantSelf-focus can also be a way of keeping you out of trouble, by reminding you of your sense of right and wrongThe Consequences of Introspecting about ReasonsReasons-Generated Attitude Change: attitudes change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one’s attitudes; people assume their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalizeIf people base an important decision on their reasons-generated attitude they might regret it later, when their original feelings returnSeveral studies found the attitudes people express after analyzing their reasons do not predict their future attitudes and behavior wellKnowing Ourselves By Observing our Own BehaviorSelf-perception theory: the theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occursWe infer our inner feelings from our behavior when we are not sure how we feelPeople judge whether their behavior really reflects how they feel or whether it was the situation that made them act that wayIntrinsic vs. Extrinsic MotivationIntrinsic motivation: the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressuresExtrinsic motivation: the desire to engage in an activity because of external reasons, not because we enjoy the task or find it interestingMany teachers or parents reward kids for good grades with compliments, candy, gold stars, toysSeveral years ago, Mel steely, professor at West Georgia college, started a program called Earning by Learning where low-income children