CHD Test 1: Chapters 1-4Chapter 13 areas of development – biological (physical), cognitive, and social-emotional.Periods of development – infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood (adolescence).- Continuous or discontinuous?Some theories see development as continuous while other theories see development as discontiinous (stage theories). Continuous development happens gradually, adding more and more of the same types of skills that werethere to begin with. Discontinuous development is a process in which new ways of thinking emerges at specific times (see Piaget’s theory)Nature and nurture –Nature – refers to an organisms biological inheritance (such as genes)Nurture – refers to environmental experiences (example, family)Always a combination of both that influence development.Theories of Child Development1. Psychoanalytic – focuses on social emotional developmenta. Freud – stage theorist, what happens in childhood is important to who you become as adultb. Erikson – learned from Freud, took a more positive view, stage theorist, what happens in childhood is important to who you becomeas an adult but you can go back and fix things that hurt you as a child.2. Cognitive – focused on the brain, learning and thinkinga. Piaget – stage theorist, said children think differently from adults andare active in constructing knowledgeb. Vygotsky – not a stage theorist, learning happens within a social context, believed children were active in learning.c. Information Processing – not a stage theorist, mind is like a computer, we manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.3. Behavioral and Social Cognitive a. Pavlov – classical conditioningb. Operant Conditioning – rewards and punishments shape development, not focused on thoughts and feelings, but on outward behavior.c. Bandura’s social cognitive theory – focuses on observational learning,we acquire a wide range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings from observing others.4. Ethological – behavior is strongly influenced by biology, there are sensitive periods when we are prepared to learn something more easily than other times.5. Ecological – emphasizes environmental factorsa. Bronfenbrenner – 5 environmental systems influence development, you can’t understand people outside their environment.Research methodsObservation –use trained observers to systematically study behavior. Survey and interview – ask people for information (quick and easy)Case study – an in-depth look at one person.Research DesignsCorrelational – examines how two variables are related.Experimental – used to study causality, have experimental (receives the treatment) and control groups with random assignment to each. Time spanLongitudinal – same individuals studied over a long period of time.Cross-sectional – individuals of different ages are compared over time.Research ChallengesResearch right – protection from harm, informed consent, privacy, knowledge of results, beneficial treatments.Chapter 2Boy or girl – XX – chromosomal make up for girl, XY – chromosomal makeup for boy.Evolutionary Psychology - emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction and the survival of the fittest.Evolution shapes our decision making – example: men with good spatial reasoningskills have survived throughout history because they are better able to go off and find food and then find their way back home again.Genes and chromosomes:Genotype – actual genetic material Phenotype – the way genotype is expressedExample: you might have a gene for blond hair (genotype) but because you also have a dominant gene for brown hair that is what is seen, the brown hair (your phenotype)Dominant and recessive – dominant genes override recessive ones. You must have bothrecessive genes for a particular trait for that to be expressed.Polygenic inheritance – most traits are determined by more than one single gene or pairof genes. This concept means that there are many influences and interactions among genes.Genomic imprinting – alleles are imprinted or chemically marked in a way that one pair member is activatged regardless of its makeup.• • Most times, human characterstics follow the rules of dominant-recessve inheritance. Somtiems they don’t – that is because of genomic imprinting.Chromosomal and Gene linked abnormalities:Chromosomal – Down’s syndromeSex linked chromosomal abnormalities – Fragile X, Turners syndromeGene linked – PKU, sickle cell anemiaPrenatal tests:1. Ultrasound – high frequency sound waves are directed at the woman’s abdomen, noninvasive, gives information about structural abnormalities of the fetus.2. Fetal MRI – uses a magnet and radio images to generate pictures of the organs.3. CVS – (9 – 12 weeks) a small sample of the placenta is removed – more invasive, small risk of limb deformity. Can detect genetic and chromosomal abnormalities.4. Amniocentesis – (14 – 20 weeks) a sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn and analyzed. Small risk of miscarriage, can detect genetic and chromosomal abnormalities.5. Maternal blood screening (16 – 18th week) identifies elevated risk of birth defects like spina bifida and Down’s syndrome. An abnormal test is followed witha ultrasound and then possibly6. Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis – separate fetal cells from the maternal cells in the mother’s blood.Infertility and reproductive technology10 – 15% of couples in US are infertile – means they have been unable to conceive after 12 months of regular intercourse without contraception. Can rest with the man (too fewsperm, low sperm motility) or woman (not ovulating, fallopian tubes are blocked, embryo won’t implant in the uterus). In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) – most common, egg is fertilized in a laboratory dish.Problems with reproductive technology – multiple pregnancies, low birth weightAdoption – an alternative – How do adopted children turn out? Early adoption leads to better outcomes than children who are adopted when they are older. Adopted children are more likely to experience psychological and school related problems than non-adopted children. There are also positive characteristics of adopted children – more engaged in prosocial behavior (altruistic, caring). In general, adopted children adjust effectively.• • Much better adjustment for children who are adopted vs. those who are in long term foster care or in institutionalized
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